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Green is another color that is linked to many concepts, especially those related to rebirth and regeneration. The skin of Osiris, king of the dead, a god dead and reborn, was green (or black). The papyrus plant was the same color; used for making paper, it was closely identified with the Nile, growing by the water and standing for new life. The lighting in this case is dimmed, to evoke what would probably have been the typical lighting of rooms in temples, filtered by windows closed with grates. The temple was the place where official religious cults were practiced, where priests wrote the sacred texts and determined the religious life of the people.
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Yellow expresses an entanglement of symbolic references. It is associated with the color of the sun, hence it is immediately connected with the solar cults. It also recalls the color of gold, the precious material that the skin of the gods was made of, but it was also the shade of ochre most commonly used at Deir el-Medina. This village, home to workers in the Valley of Kings and the Valley of Queens, was the site where most of the surviving information about the daily life of the ancient Egyptians was found. The exhibition halls decorated in this color are bathed in an intense glow, meant to evoke the blinding sunlight that tormented the poor Egyptian farmers.
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Ministério da Cidadania, Banco do Brasil, BB DTVM e BB Seguros apresentam “Egito Antigo: do cotidiano à eternidade”, exposição de historiografia geral do Egito Antigo que integra as comemorações de 30 anos do Centro Cultural Banco do Brasil Rio de Janeiro.
São 140 peças oriundas do Museu Egípcio de Turim, detentor de um dos maiores acervos egiptológicos do mundo, entre esculturas, pinturas, objetos litúrgicos e de uso cotidiano, além de sarcófagos e uma múmia humana, representando o desenvolvimento de uma cultura milenar que influenciou a história da humanidade.
Com Egito Antigo: do cotidiano à eternidade o CCBB resgata a temática de mostras que contaram a história de civilizações e culturas como Arte da África (2003), Antes – Histórias da Pré-história (2004), Por Ti América (2005) e Lusa – A Matriz Portuguesa (2007).
Ao celebrar três décadas de atuação, o Banco do Brasil reafirma seu protagonismo e o compromisso com a formação de público para a cultura por meio de uma programação plural, regular, acessível e de qualidade.
Centro Cultural Banco do Brasil
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Ministério da Cidadania, Banco do Brasil, BB DTVM e BB Seguros apresentam “Egito Antigo: do cotidiano à eternidade”, exposição de historiografia geral do Egito Antigo que integra as comemorações de 30 anos do Centro Cultural Banco do Brasil Rio de Janeiro.
São 140 peças oriundas do Museu Egípcio de Turim, detentor de um dos maiores acervos egiptológicos do mundo, entre esculturas, pinturas, objetos litúrgicos e de uso cotidiano, além de sarcófagos e uma múmia humana, representando o desenvolvimento de uma cultura milenar que influenciou a história da humanidade.
Com Egito Antigo: do cotidiano à eternidade o CCBB resgata a temática de mostras que contaram a história de civilizações e culturas como Arte da África (2003), Antes – Histórias da Pré-história (2004), Por Ti América (2005) e Lusa – A Matriz Portuguesa (2007).
Ao celebrar três décadas de atuação, o Banco do Brasil reafirma seu protagonismo e o compromisso com a formação de público para a cultura por meio de uma programação plural, regular, acessível e de qualidade.
Centro Cultural Banco do Brasil
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Patrocínio [Sponsorship]
Banco do Brasil
BB DTVM
BB Seguros
Realização [Presentation]
Ministério da Cidadania
Centro Cultural Banco do Brasil
Concepção e Coordenação Geral [Conception and General Coordination]
Art Unlimited
Pieter Tjabbes / Tânia Mills
Curadoria [Curated by]
Paolo Marini
Pieter Tjabbes
Novos Negócios [New Business]
Sandra Klinger Rocha
Arquitetura da exposição [Exhibition Architecture]
George Mills Arquitetura
Luís Canepa
Iluminação [Lighting]
Iluminarte
Karina Mendonça / Kristhyan Natal
Design Gráfico e Comunicação Visual [Graphic Design and Visual Communication]
Marina Ayra
Cenógrafo [Set designer]
Mauro Amorim
Produção Executiva [Executive Production]
Sonia Leme
Produção [Production]
Karen Garcia
Coordenação de Montagem [Setup Coordination]
Hiro Kai
Equipe de Montagem [Assembly Staff]
Cicero Bibiano
Hélio Iwasa
Moisés Barbosa
Kazuhiro Ricardo Bedim
Assistente de Produção [Production Assistant]
Martina Balieiro
Natália Pontes
Equipe administrativa [Administrative Staff]
Cristiane Guimarães
Reginaldo de Sousa
Rose Teixeira
Laudos de Conservação [Conservation Report]
R & M Conservação de Obras de Arte
Interatividade [Interactivity]
Fator Z (Marcos Muzi)
Rc3D (Rafael Cotaitt)
Alles Blau (Julia Masagão)
Mandelbrot (Andrei Thomaz)
Projeto de Acessibilidade [Accessibility Project]
Mais Diferenças
Ktalise
Efeitos Visuais [Special Effects]
Silvio Galvão
Tratamento de Imagens [Image Editing]
Motivo
Vídeo Design [Video Design]
QG Pro – Quinho Guimarães
Audiovisual [Audiovisual]
Images Áudio e Vídeo
Cenotecnia [Stage Setting]
Cenográfica - José Fernandes dos Santos Neto
Metro Cenografia
Eprom Exposições
LM Montagens de Cenário
Baldoino Vidros
Consultoria em Climatização [Air Conditioning Consultant]
Eng. Bruno Fedeli
Tradução [Translation]
Izabel Murat Burbridge
John Norman
Revisão [Revision]
Armando Olivetti
Assessoria de Imprensa [Press Office]
Agência Galo
Assessoria Jurídica [Legal Advice]
Olivieri Advogados Associados
Transporte [Transportation]
ARTERIA Srl
Millenium Transportes
Agradecimentos [Acknowledgments]
MIBAC – Ministero per i beni e le attività culturali, Itália [Italy]
Museo Egizio, Turim, Itália [Turin, Italy]
Itaú Cultural, São Paulo
Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden, Países Baixos [The Netherlands]
The J Paul Getty Trust
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Midnight blue is featured in the halls displaying funerary traditions. The phase when the goddess Nut swallowed the sun and it passed through the darkness of her belly was associated with the kingdom of the dead, who lived in the West, where the sun set. Blue is also the color of lapis lazuli, the precious mineral widely used and much prized by the Egyptians. The lighting at this point of the exhibition is even dimmer, suggesting the enclosed and sealed spaces of the funerary chambers where the grave goods were originally placed.
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The Ministry of Citizenship, Banco do Brasil, BB DTVM and BB Seguros present “Ancient Egypt: From Daily Life to Eternity”, a historiographical survey exhibition of Ancient Egypt as part of the celebrations of the 30th anniversary of Centro Cultural Banco do Brasil Rio de Janeiro.
The show features 140 pieces from the Museo Egizio of Turin, which possesses one of the largest Egyptological collections in the world, including sculptures and paintings, sacred and everyday objects, sarcophagi, and a human mummy, representing the development of an immemorial culture that influenced the history of humankind.
With Ancient Egypt: From Daily Life to Eternity, the CCBB resumes the thematics of shows that have told the history of civilizations and cultures such as Art from Africa (2003), Before – Stories of Prehistory (2004), For You America (2005) and Lusa – The Portuguese Matrix (2007).
By celebrating three decades of activity, Banco do Brasil reaffirms its leading role and commitment in regard to boosting public awareness and knowledge about culture through high quality programming that is plural, regular, and accessible.
Centro Cultural Banco do Brasil
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The Ministry of Citizenship, Banco do Brasil, BB DTVM and BB Seguros present “Ancient Egypt: From Daily Life to Eternity”, a historiographical survey exhibition of Ancient Egypt as part of the celebrations of the 30th anniversary of Centro Cultural Banco do Brasil Rio de Janeiro.
The show features 140 pieces from the Museo Egizio of Turin, which possesses one of the largest Egyptological collections in the world, including sculptures and paintings, sacred and everyday objects, sarcophagi, and a human mummy, representing the development of an immemorial culture that influenced the history of humankind.
With Ancient Egypt: From Daily Life to Eternity, the CCBB resumes the thematics of shows that have told the history of civilizations and cultures such as Art from Africa (2003), Before – Stories of Prehistory (2004), For You America (2005) and Lusa – The Portuguese Matrix (2007).
By celebrating three decades of activity, Banco do Brasil reaffirms its leading role and commitment in regard to boosting public awareness and knowledge about culture through high quality programming that is plural, regular, and accessible.
Centro Cultural Banco do Brasil
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O amarelo expressa um emaranhado de referências simbólicas. Sua associação com a cor do sol e, portanto, com os cultos solares é imediata. Além disso, lembra tanto a cor do ouro, material precioso de que era feita a pele dos deuses, como também a tonalidade do ocre mais comumente utilizada em Deir el-Medina. Nesse vilarejo, onde residiam os operários que trabalhavam no Vale dos Reis e no Vale das Rainhas, foi encontrada a maior parte das informações sobre a vida cotidiana dos antigos egípcios. As salas de exposição caracterizadas por essa cor são banhadas por um brilho intenso, destinado a evocar a luz ofuscante do sol, que certamente atormentava os pobres camponeses egípcios.
Yellow expresses an entanglement of symbolic references. It is associated with the color of the sun, hence it is immediately connected with the solar cults. It also recalls the color of gold, the precious material that the skin of the gods was made of, but it was also the shade of ochre most commonly used at Deir el-Medina. This village, home to workers in the Valley of Kings and the Valley of Queens, was the site where most of the surviving information about the daily life of the ancient Egyptians was found. The exhibition halls decorated in this color are bathed in an intense glow, meant to evoke the blinding sunlight that tormented the poor Egyptian farmers.
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O azul noturno caracteriza as salas dedicadas às tradições funerárias. A fase em que a deusa Nut engolia o sol, o qual passava pela escuridão de seu ventre, era associada ao reino dos mortos, que viviam no Ocidente, onde o sol se punha. O azul é também a cor do lápis-lazúli, mineral precioso amplamente utilizado e apreciado pelos egípcios. A iluminação neste ponto da exposição é ainda mais tênue, sugerindo os espaços exíguos e velados das câmaras onde os equipamentos funerários eram originalmente colocados.
Midnight blue is featured in the halls displaying funerary traditions. The phase when the goddess Nut swallowed the sun and it passed through the darkness of her belly was associated with the kingdom of the dead, who lived in the West, where the sun set. Blue is also the color of lapis lazuli, the precious mineral widely used and much prized by the Egyptians. The lighting at this point of the exhibition is even dimmer, suggesting the enclosed and sealed spaces of the funerary chambers where the grave goods were originally placed.
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O verde é outra cor vinculada a muitos conceitos, especialmente aqueles relacionados com renascimento e regeneração. A pele de Osíris, rei dos mortos, um deus morto e ressuscitado, era verde (ou preta). Essa era também a cor do papiro, planta típica do Nilo, que crescia perto da água e significava nova vida. Aqui, a iluminação rebaixada evoca o que teria sido a iluminação característica dos ambientes templários, filtrada por janelas fechadas por grades. O templo era o lugar dedicado à prática dos cultos religiosos oficiais, onde os sacerdotes escreviam os textos sagrados e determinavam a religiosidade do povo.
Green is another color that is linked to many concepts, especially those related to rebirth and regeneration. The skin of Osiris, king of the dead, a god dead and reborn, was green (or black). The papyrus plant was the same color; used for making paper, it was closely identified with the Nile, growing by the water and standing for new life. The lighting in this case is dimmed, to evoke what would probably have been the typical lighting of rooms in temples, filtered by windows closed with grates. The temple was the place where official religious cults were practiced, where priests wrote the sacred texts and determined the religious life of the people.
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An Army of Shabtis
Towards the end of the First Intermediate Period (2118–1980 BC), shabtis became part of the funerary equipment of the ancient Egyptians. These were mummiform statuettes that were meant to replace the deceased if he was summoned to do work in the afterlife.
The number of shabtis recorded in single burials increased rapidly over time, until becoming a veritable army of workers in the service of the deceased by the Third Intermediate Period (1076–722 BC). During this period, funerary statuettes were often placed in two small boxes. Some finds suggest that they must have been placed upright side by side, and that the canonical number was 401 shabtis. This was not a random number, but represented 365 shabti mummies (one for each day of the Egyptian year) plus 36 overseers in uniforms holding the symbols of command (1 for every 10 shabtis).
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Daily Life
In the popular imagination, ancient Egypt has always been thought of as a mystical and legendary land. Even today, after seeing the great Egyptian collections around the world, people have the impression that the Egyptians were completely devoted to death. This perception is due to the kind of objects that have been preserved: beautiful funerary artefacts that tell stories of strange customs and beliefs, extremely interesting and fascinating but largely associated with death and funerals.
But the Egyptians did not actually spend a lot of time thinking about death. On the contrary, they loved life, so much so that they hoped it would continue after death. Life, especially ordinary, daily life, is the main character of the first section of this exhibition.
The teeming Egyptian civilization depended on the Nile River and its systematic floods. The day was long and the sun harsh, especially for the poor peasants who spent their days in the fields. On the other hand, the noblemen who owned the land enjoyed their time in cool shady areas under the palm trees, enjoying themselves hunting and fishing for pleasure.
The Egyptian landscape, both ancient and modern, reflects the contrast between the arid red desert, dominated by the fearful God Seth, who killed his brother Osiris, and the well-watered narrow strip of land on either side of the river, with its luxuriant vegetation often depicted in the beautiful wall paintings in Egyptian tombs.
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Religion
Throughout its whole history, ancient Egypt was polytheistic. A traveler sailing along the Nile, from south to north, would encounter the numerous cities, where the local cult was devoted to different deities: Horus in Edfu, Khnum in Esna, Amun in Thebes, Hathor in Dendera, Osiris in Abydos, Ptah in Memphis, and so on.
One peculiarity of Egyptian religion was that two or three names of deities could be combined to create another god or goddess. Egyptian deities could have several manifestations and many of them also had an animal form. It is no surprise then, that animals associated with specific deities were worshipped.
The official cult of the god took place in the temples, which were perfect expressions of a metaphysical vision in stone. They were divided into public and sacred areas, where only a few priests and the king could enter, and they had a peculiar telescope-like architectural structure, which gradually passed from earthly light into shadow and then darkness.
The most personal and intimate type of devotion that the Egyptians could express towards the deity was the votive cult, in which objects (ex-votos) such as bronze statuettes of the deity were presented in exchange for particular favors.
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Bronze statuettes
The Egyptian pantheon is astonishing for the number and variety of gods worshiped all through the Nile Valley. While some deities were adored in every part of the country, others had local cults.
Each deity had its own place of worship: Osiris was the god of Abydos, Thoth the god of Hermopolis, Bastet the goddess of Bubastis, Amun the god of Thebes, Montu the god of Armant, and so on.
People often made long pilgrimages to these cult centers, culminating in the donation of a votive offering. It was probably because of this custom that there was a massive production of small bronzes representing the deities in the form of people, animals or hybrids of the two. Can you identify the cat goddess Bastet? And the bull Apis? Examine them one by one: each of them could tell you a long story...
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Bronze statuettes
The Egyptian pantheon is astonishing for the number and variety of gods worshiped all through the Nile Valley. While some deities were adored in every part of the country, others had local cults.
Each deity had its own place of worship: Osiris was the god of Abydos, Thoth the god of Hermopolis, Bastet the goddess of Bubastis, Amun the god of Thebes, Montu the god of Armant, and so on.
People often made long pilgrimages to these cult centers, culminating in the donation of a votive offering. It was probably because of this custom that there was a massive production of small bronzes representing the deities in the form of people, animals or hybrids of the two. Can you identify the cat goddess Bastet? And the bull Apis? Examine them one by one: each of them could tell you a long story...
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Administration and Hierarchy
The pharaoh, “master of the universe, lord and father of all men, the earthly expression of the gods”, had the heavy burden of governing over all Egypt, in maat (justice). For these purposes, he was assisted by his most faithful men: many civil affairs were delegated to the vizier, who was immediately after the pharaoh in authority and to whom other officials were responsible. For this reason, his duties were numerous: the head of justice, of the police, of public works, taxes and of the chancellor’s office, presiding over the war council, as chief of the army, and over the court for the most complex cases. In short, he enjoyed full power and ruled in the name of the king. This accumulation of responsibilities led to the establishment of a markedly hierarchical bureaucracy. Egypt was subdivided into administrative districts governed by local lords who had their own administration, formed by officials who constituted an elected class and enjoyed the privilege of exemption from servitude. One step below them came the technicians, subordinate officials, officers, simple priests, scribes, superintendents, skilled workers, and artists. These did not live in luxury, but were not poor. It often happened that someone from this position succeeded in climbing the social ladder.
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Ancient Egypt: From Daily Life to Eternity
The exhibition does not make any large claim to completeness, but rather seeks to give a glimpse of that legendary culture (4th millennium BC – 1st century BC) and an overview of some of its distinctive practices, usages, customs and habits. The exhibition is divided into three sections: daily life, religion and funerary customs.
Egyptian civilization was very hierarchical and administered by bureaucrats accountable to the only legitimate ruler of the country: the Pharaoh.
Egyptian religion was polytheistic, characterized by the belief in a large number of major and minor divinities. The official worship of the gods took place in temples. The gods could manifest themselves in a number of different ways, and many of them also took animal form. As soon as the Pharaohs ascended the throne, they would devote much of their resources to the creation of monumental temples and tombs. Eternity, the preservation of the deceased’s body and its consequent survival are three aspects of the same concept. The practice of mummification seems to have been favored by the spread of the belief that, to enjoy eternal life, an Egyptian had to submit to a divine judgment presided over by the god Osiris.
The possibility of continuing in the afterlife was ensured by a complex set of ritual and magical furnishings. From the origins to the end of Ancient Egyptian civilization, the coffin always enclosed a universe of religious beliefs. The coffin ensures that the deceased possess the eternal regeneration.
Paolo Marini
Pieter Tjabbes
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Bronze Statuettes Representing Divinities
The Egyptian pantheon is surprising, not only for the multitude of divinities worshipped along the whole of the Nile Valley, but also for the coexistence of official cults and private cults, which took place on two parallel levels. Some divinities were worshiped over almost the whole country, while others were worshiped only in specific places, in temples dedicated to them.
It was common to represent this Egyptian pantheon with small bronze statuettes, a few centimeters high, made by casting with the lost-wax technique and finished by sculpting. There was no particular preference between the representation of the divinity in animal or human form, but rather a trend towards copying the models presented by monumental statues. Even though the specific purpose of small statuettes has not been precisely clarified, the fact that some of them come from large temples suggests a votive function: they were probably magical objects dedicated in the temples when seeking intermediation between the person making the offering and the deity.
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Cult of Animals
The Egyptian gods could manifest themselves in various ways, and many of them took animal forms. It is no wonder, therefore, that animals associated with specific deities were worshipped and that their bodies were mummified. There were several reasons why animals were embalmed. In the temples, a specimen of the animal associated with the god was considered an incarnation. On its death, the body would be mummified and placed into a coffin that could be made of terracotta, stone, bronze, or wood. Mummified animals were also taken to the temple as votive offerings to the god (ex-votos), as can be read at times in the inscriptions on them. In fact, there are catacombs or votive deposits filled with animal mummies presented by pilgrims as offerings. In the larger temples, galleries have been found that house thousands of animal mummies, especially of cats, for the goddess Bastet, of dogs for the god Anubis, of hawks for the god Horus, and of ibis for the god Thoth. The mummies were accompanied by objects in various materials, including statues of deities, bronze statuettes or limestone steles at which offerings were made to the gods.
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Cultivating the Fields of God
We work for the master!
The day is beautiful and we lie in the shade,
the oxen pull and pull,
the sky is to our heart’s desire,
we work for the master!
This was all Egyptian peasants had to lighten the burden of the long and laborious days working in the sun: singing old songs. In reality, their living and working conditions were very different from the pastoral agricultural scenes depicted in the tombs of the nobles. Herodotus called Egypt the “gift of the Nile” and, sure enough, the environmental conditions, climate, flora, fauna, crops, and the whole economy of the country, as well as the life of the Egyptian people, depended on the great river and its flooding that divided the seasonal cycles. The main products were wheat and other cereals. However, despite occupying the lowest step of the social scale, it was the peasant who was the true backbone of the nation. When the waters withdrew after the annual flooding of the Nile, making the fields fertile, the peasants began to work the “Black Earth”, devoting themselves mainly to restoring the irrigation channels and dams extensively damaged by flooding.
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Cults Along the Nile
Egypt had a very large number of gods and goddesses. When the land was unified under the power of the first kings, the individual cities were unwilling to renounce their god or group of gods. Some local gods failed to extend their influence outside their city, but others, for various reasons, extended their cult and were venerated throughout Egypt. For this reason, each place understood the divine in its own way, assigning it different names, functions, and forms.
One characteristic of Egyptian religion was that two or three deities could be linked to form a single god or goddess. This system of combinations (syncretism) enabled one deity to borrow features and attributes from another. Another way of combining different deities was to create divine families: Osiris, with his cult center at Abydos, was united with Isis; at Thebes, Amun was united with Mut, and Khonsu was their son; at Memphis, Ptah was united with the goddess Sekhmet, and Nefertum was their son. It should be said, however, that these deities existed independently before being joined in families.
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Description de L’Egypte
[Descrição do Egito]
A invasão francesa do Egito (1798-1801), ordenada por Napoleão, foi uma tentativa de fundar uma colônia, reforçando assim o domínio francês na bacia do Mediterrâneo.
Embora tenha sido um fiasco militar e político, a expedição mudou a face da Terra: ao revelar o esplendor de uma civilização misteriosa e esquecida, deu origem à egiptologia.
Dentre os 500 civis que acompanharam o exército havia 167 estudiosos – “Les savants” –, incluindo 21 matemáticos, 3 astrônomos, 17 engenheiros civis, 13 naturalistas e engenheiros de minas, 4 arquitetos, 8 desenhistas e 10 homens de letras. Para maior glória da República Francesa, eles encontrariam vestígios do Egito faraônico, o “berço da ciência e da arte de toda a humanidade”, como Napoleão afirmou em fevereiro de 1802, ao determinar que a Imprensa Imperial iniciasse a publicação dos tesouros culturais e científicos trazidos pela expedição egípcia. Uma equipe de 400 gravadores em cobre trabalhou por 20 anos na publicação de Description de L’Egypte, verdadeiro compêndio etnográfico e geográfico. Esse trabalho monumental compreende dez volumes in-fólio, duas antologias, 837 gravuras em cobre e mais de 3 mil ilustrações no total, algumas delas com mais de um metro de comprimento.
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Egyptian Amulets
An amulet is a magical object that, once worn or fixed on a piece of clothing, was believed to defend both the living and the dead from all perils. Many of them ensured the survival of the dead, to overcome the dangers they would encounter in the afterlife. The power of its magic was determined by the image it represented and also by the material it was made of, its color and all the inscriptions or formulas on it. The Egyptians used four different words to define them:
• meket, term used in the Old Kingdom (2592–2118 BC), a declination of the verb mki, which means “to protect”;
• sa, from the same period as the term meket, which is also used as a single word to mean “protection”;
• wdja, used in the Middle Kingdom (1980–1700 BC), coming from a term that means “intact, well preserved”;
• nehet, which means “shelter, protection,” a typical word of the New Kingdom (1539–1076 BC).
The position of the amulets on the deceased was determined by their function. The ideal mummy was literally covered with these magical objects, placed between the layers of bandages enfolding the body. Some amulets were used singly, while others like the wdjat eye and the djed pillar were often placed multiple times on the same person.
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Funerary Beliefs
Belief in life after death in ancient Egypt was closely linked to the need to preserve the body of the deceased. For this purpose a complex embalming process was developed, which has allowed many corpses to be preserved until the present. The destiny of the dead was not the same for all. The pharaoh entered a celestial afterlife. He ascended to the sky and became a star among the other gods. The common people were destined to a parallel world where they lived a life very like the one they had led on earth.
The kingdom of the dead, ruled by the god Osiris, was believed to lie in the west, where the sun set. This is why the necropolises were situated on the west bank of the Nile, while the cities were on the east bank. The Egyptians believed that goddess Nut swallowed the sun every day at sunset and gave birth to it again in the morning. This image, together with the dangers that the sun had to face, was associated with the idea of the troubled journey that the dead had to take to reach the fields of Iaru.
The Coffin Texts and the Book of the Dead, along with many other magical formulas written on the burial equipment, were supposed to help the dead in this effort and ensure they attained eternal life.
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Magic
It is always very difficult to clearly distinguish the features that separate magic from religion. Magic plays a very important role in the life of primitive communities and, in the case of Egypt, there was no conflict with religion: magic can be regarded as part of religion as well as a part of medicine. Most sorcerers (hekaw) were priests, in particular the so-called lector priests (kheri hebet) who possessed these specific skills. They used to read the texts required in various rituals. As experts and guardians of sacred documents, they had a knowledge of medicine, astronomy, physics and chemistry. In addition, they drew their science from materials in libraries at what were called “houses of life.” Here they would study the stars and prepare rituals or medicines to defeat the evil forces afflicting the sick. The formulas often prescribe the potions to administer and the rituals to practice in order to cure specific illnesses. The Pyramid Texts (Old Kingdom, 2592–2118 BC) are ancient works about magic. They were intended to ensure the king’s power and prosperity in the afterlife.
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Mummies and Mummification
The desire for survival after death led the Egyptians to develop a set of monumental, ritualistic, and magical procedures intended to ensure that the individual would continue to live after death. An essential condition for immortality was to maintain the integrity of the body. For this reason, the Egyptians developed complex embalming techniques. At the end of the preparation of the body, the embalmers carefully wrapped it in strips of linen soaked in resins used as adhesives. Amulets were placed among them to ensure the protection of specific parts of the body. In addition, a papyrus scroll inscribed with funerary texts, such as the Book of the Dead, could be placed in the hands or between the legs of the dead person: they contained magic formulas that would serve as a guide in the dangerous journey in the afterlife. In the end, the body would be wrapped in a large cloth, in turn fixed by strips of linen and crossed in front. The mummy thus made was now ready to be placed inside the coffin for the funeral celebrations.
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Museo Egizio
The Museo Egizio of Turin, Italy, is the oldest museum dedicated to the Pharaonic civilization and boasts the second largest collection of Egyptian antiquities in the world as well as the most important one outside of Egypt.
The museum is the result of a journey of almost two hundred years, which starts with the first Egyptian antiquities acquired by the House of Savoy in the 17th century and then continues with the purchase of the Drovetti collection that allowed, in 1824, the creation of this museum.
The visitor path winds through five exhibition floors that house about 3,300 artefacts to tell the story of the museum, of the collections, and of the archaeological contexts of the objects on display. Visiting the Museo Egizio means traveling back in time, through more than 4,000 years of history, encountering priceless exhibits, such as the natural Predynas-tic mummy dating back to the 5th millennium B.C., the papyrus that documents the first strike in history and the statues of the legendary pharaohs, especially the one of Ramesses II, one of the most famous characters of Ancient Egypt.
The setup of archaeological contexts, devoted to the most important discoveries of the museum, lets the visitor dive into the daily life and culture of Ancient Egypt, as is the case of the room dedicated to the workmen’s village of Deir el-Medina. In this room, the ob-jects on display tell the story of the workmen employed for the construction and decora-tion of the pharaohs’ tombs. Another example is the room that contains the funerary goods of the inviolate tomb of the architect Kha and his wife, Merit.
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Ra and Sekhmet
According to the Book of the Heavenly Cow, in the faraway past the god Ra directly governed the men of the earth. Until one day, taking advantage of his old age, the men conspired against him.
To punish the malice and rebellion of the men he had created, Ra tasked his daughter Sekhmet, the fierce lioness known as the “Eye of Ra” to destroy them. Sekhmet then began to massacre the men who had fled to the desert.
Changing his mind, Ra decided to forgive the rebellious humanity. Meanwhile, however, Sekhmet had escaped from her father’s control. To placate Sekhmet’s wrath and thirst for blood, Ra resorted to a trick. He dyed some beer red, and the goddess drank it, believing it was blood. She got drunk and fell asleep. When she woke up, Sekhmet was calm and had forgotten the task she had been given.
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Sarcophagi and Coffins
The most important item in the funerary equipment was the stone sarcophagus, in which the coffin and the deceased’s mummified body would be placed. Its main function was practical, namely, to preserve the integrity of the body. This function of physical protection never declined, but over the centuries it was transformed in both form and decoration as funerary beliefs developed.
Predynastic Period – Old Kingdom (3900–2118 BC)
In the Predynastic Period, we have evidence of early attempts to protect the body in wicker mats or animal skins. Subsequently there appeared baskets or large pots and a simple oval or rectangular coffin. The first wooden specimens, quadrangular in form, in which the body was still buried in the fetal position, date from the Predynastic Period. Under the Old Kingdom, the stone sarcophagi and wooden coffins had smooth outer walls or were decorated with a “palace facade” motif, recalling earthly dwellings.
First Intermediate Period – Middle Kingdom (2118–1700 BC)
From the Old Kingdom, and throughout the Middle Kingdom, a panel containing a pair of eyes was painted on the head end of the outside of the coffin, through which the deceased could see outside and maintain a bond with the world of the living. During the Middle Kingdom the inner surface was covered by the formulas of the Coffin Texts and lists of offerings. Towards the end of the 12th Dynasty (1939–1759 BC), anthropoid coffins appear. They copied the appearance of the mummy and would serve as body substitutes if it were destroyed.
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Sarcophagi and Coffins
New Kingdom (1539–1076 BC)
At the beginning of the 18th Dynasty (1539–1292 BC), the coffin featured simple polychrome decoration on a white ground, with a vertical band and four cross bands on the lid, imitating mummy bandages, containing offerings and prayers to the gods. The space between the bandages depicts funerary scenes. The middle of the 18th Dynasty brought in sarcophagi with gold-leaf decoration or yellow paint on a black ground. These were gradually replaced in the early 19th Dynasty (1292–1190 BC) by a new type painted in brilliant colors on a yellow ground. The space between the bandages and the text began to be occupied by scenes of offerings to the gods and episodes from the Book of the Dead.
Third Intermediate Period – Late Period (1076–332 BC)
During the Third Intermediate Period the commonest type were “yellow coffins” with inner coffins in cartonnage comprising a central core of mud and straw, covered with plaster and numerous layers of pressed linen, soaked in resin.
In Roman times, the cartonnage mummy case tended to display a more realistic image of the deceased. The plaster masks and encaustic (wax) portraits on wooden boards provide evidence of this new artistic sensibility.
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Statue Representing a Sphinx
In ancient Egypt the sphinx represented the divine image of the king, considered to be the son of the sun god Ra. The creature that embodied the solar energy was the lion, with which the king’s head was associated. During the Roman period (30 BC–395 AD), statues representing the sphinx were placed at the entrances to tombs, as they were the symbol of rebirth, guaranteed by the solar cycle, in the afterlife. A certain rigidity in the posture, which contrasts with the detailed definition of the muscular mass and rib cage, can be observed in sphinxes from this period, such as the ones in this exhibition.
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The Egyptian Tombs
Pyramids, mastabas, hypogea, tomb-temples, there were many types of tombs that followed one another during the long civilization of the Nile. The monumental tombs of the pharaohs were very different from those of private individuals, yet both had a common goal: to guarantee eternity to the deceased they protected.
After the great pyramids of the Old Kingdom, from the New Kingdom onward the pharaohs were buried inside hypogeal tombs: chambers and corridors, lined with polychrome reliefs, that were carved in the rocks. Private citizens likewise chose hypogeal tombs, less monumental, but attached to funerary chapels where relatives could remember and pray for the deceased. In Deir el-Medina – an archaeological site near Luxor – the funerary chapels were in the shape of small pyramids, surmounted by a pyramidion, a small stone pyramid carved and painted with religious elements. The door was also in painted stone and inscribed with hieroglyphics that bear the name and titles of the deceased. Inside the chapel, it was essential to place the false-door stela, a magical element that allowed the soul of the deceased to leave the tomb and move about freely.
Finally, since the mummy of the deceased required food for eternity, funeral offerings of food were carved on a funerary stela and an offering table. The rest of the equipment was inside the chamber of the sepulcher.
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The Heart Scarab and Chapter XXXB of the Book of the Dead
During the mummification process, the viscera of the dead person were removed through an incision made in one side of the abdomen. After being treated with natron and bandaged, in the same way as the body, they would be placed in canopic jars. The kidneys, considered as the seat of the emotions, and the heart, the seat of the soul, were reintroduced inside the mummy. The heart would in particular serve the deceased when appearing before the judgement of Osiris. To emphasize its importance, the so-called heart scarab was placed on the mummy’s breast, recorded in Chapter XXXB of the Book of the Dead, which recommends the heart not to testify against the deceased during the psychostasia (weighing of the soul), and not to contradict his confession before the judgement of Osiris:
My heart of my mother, my heart of my mother, my heart of my earthly being, do not stand against me as witness beside the lords of the ritual, do not say against me, he did it, say nothing against me before the great god...
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The Temple
Egyptian temples perfectly represent the embodiment of the metaphysical in stone. They display structural differences in different historical periods. In any case they were not exclusively places of worship: especially beginning in the New Kingdom (1539–1076 BC), they were also the administrative and economic centers of cities. Each temple would be subdivided into public spaces and sacred spaces, to which only some priests and the king could gain access. A major distinction can be made between temples devoted to the cult of the gods, and funerary temples devoted to the posthumous cult of the pharaoh. The part closest to the community was the pylon: two massive stone pillars, representing the horizon, marked the entrance to the temple; there followed a court open to the sky where people gathered at religious festivals; the main body consisted of one or more hypostyle halls. The most important place was undoubtedly the naos, called “the cult chamber” where the statue of the god was placed. This was protected all around by the “mysterious corridor,” preceded by what was called the “Hall of the Ennead,” and then again by a chamber where larger offerings were made for the annual liturgies. Then came the hypostyle hall, which took its name from the columns supporting it.
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The Tomb of Nefertari
Replica of a side room of the first hall
Nefertari, also known as Nefertari Meritmut, was an Egyptian queen and the first of the Great Royal Wives of Ramesses the Great. She is one of the best-known Egyptian queens, next to Cleopatra, Nefertiti, and Hatshepsut. She was highly educated and able to both read and write hieroglyphs, skills she used in her diplomatic work, corresponding with other prominent royals of the time. Her lavishly decorated tomb is one of the largest and most spectacular in the Valley of the Queens.
On the walls of this room, Queen Nefertari is shown in the company of several gods of the Hereafter: Ptah, Thoth, Osiris, Atum and Re. The faces of some of them are painted green as a symbol of their eternal rejuvenation.
The long text in hieroglyphs contains many spells from the Book of the Dead. Upon the rear wall, Nefertari presents food offerings to Osiris, god of the Netherworld, and to Atum, a form of the sun god Re. The remarkable image next to the doorway depicts the union of these two gods. It reflects the moment when the sun joins Osiris in the Netherworld at night. The goddesses Isis and Nephthys protect him and ensure that the god renews himself daily. The seven cows and one bull are also from the Book of the Dead. They guarantee the provision of food for the deceased. The ceiling shows the starry sky, the abode of the gods.
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There is no craft as good as that of the scribe
O scribe, do not be lazy, otherwise you will be crushed immediately. Do not give your heart to pleasure, or you will be a failure. Write with your hand, read with your mouth. Obtain advice from those who are wiser than you… An experienced well-educated scribe is lucky.
As we learn from the many ancient Egyptian texts, preparing to become a scribe opened the path to profound knowledge. The title of scribe was given to those who knew how to write, and as such, it indicated a degree of education rather than a certain professional position. Being a scribe was a requirement for access to higher posts beginning with the Old Kingdom (2592–2118 BC). Although the scribe was found in the priestly and military sphere, it was in administration that he found the greatest opportunities for employment. Then, because of their knowledge, starting in the New Kingdom (1539–1076 BC), scribes constituted a true “intellectual class”. The patron of scribes was the lunar god Thoth: the creator of languages and writing, especially of hieroglyphs, the sacred script. One of the functions of the scribe was to act as the interpreter of sculpted words to those unable to read.
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Women in Ancient Egypt
Egyptian aesthetic canons are easy to observe thanks to the idealized art. An Egyptian woman of high rank, complying with the social rules, deserving respect from her husband and family, is characterized by an eternally youthful beauty. Her figure is always slender. Pregnant women or women with large bellies are never depicted. A married woman played a greater part in the morals and life of the Egyptians, compared to any other ancient civilization.
The boundaries between medicines and beauty products were often blurred. In the Egyptian world, the care and cleanliness of one’s body was a fundamental part of the daily hygiene of the person. There were numerous lotions, ointments, creams and dyes.
A dark green mixture of malachite and galena combined with water or other resinous substances was applied to the outline of the eye and edges of the eyelids as protection from the heat and blinding light. A stick was used to extend the black lines beyond the corner of the eye to accentuate the intensity of the gaze. Women loved to color their cheeks with red ochre, which was also the base for a lip dye, while another red pigment was used to color the palms of the hands and soles of the feet, as well as the hair.
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A Tumba de Nefertari
Réplica de uma sala lateral do primeiro corredor
Nefertari foi uma rainha egípcia e a primeira das grandes esposas reais de Ramsés, o Grande. É uma das rainhas egípcias mais conhecidas, ao lado de Cleópatra, Nefertiti e Hatshepsut. Era altamente instruída e sabia ler e escrever hieróglifos, habilidades que empregava no trabalho diplomático, trocando correspondências com outros membros da realeza da época. Sua tumba luxuosamente decorada é uma das maiores e mais espetaculares do Vale das Rainhas.
Nas paredes desta sala, a rainha Nefertari é acompanhada por vários deuses da outra vida: Ptah, Thoth, Osíris, Aton e Ra. Os rostos de alguns deles são pintados em verde como símbolo de sua eterna juventude. O texto longo em hieróglifos contém várias fórmulas mágicas extraídas do Livro dos Mortos. Na parede posterior, Nefertari apresenta alimentos a Osíris, deus do Mundo Inferior, e a Aton, uma forma do deus do sol Ra. A imagem notável ao lado da porta mostra a união desses dois deuses. Reflete o momento em que o sol encontra Osíris no Mundo Inferior, à noite. As deusas Ísis e Néftis o protegem e garantem que a divindade se renove diariamente. As sete vacas e um touro também pertencem ao Livro dos Mortos. Garantem o abastecimento de alimentos para o defunto. O teto mostra o céu estrelado, a morada dos deuses.
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A magia
É sempre muito difícil distinguir claramente as características que separam a magia da religião. A magia desempenhava um papel muito importante na vida das comunidades primitivas e, no caso do Egito, não entrava em conflito com a religião: a magia podia ser considerada como parte desta, assim como da medicina. Quase todos os feiticeiros (hekaw) eram sacerdotes, em particular os chamados sacerdotes-leitores (kheri hebet) que possuíam habilidades específicas. Em geral, liam os textos conforme exigido pelos vários rituais. Como especialistas e guardiões de documentos sagrados, tinham conhecimentos de medicina, astronomia, física e química. Além disso, extraíam sua ciência do material das bibliotecas das chamadas “casas da vida”. Estudavam as estrelas e preparavam rituais e medicamentos para derrotar as forças do mal que afligiam os doentes. As fórmulas geralmente prescreviam as poções a serem administradas e os rituais a serem praticados para curar moléstias específicas. Já os Textos das Pirâmides (Antigo Império, 2592-2118 a.C.) são obras antigas sobre magia. Destinavam-se a garantir o poder e a prosperidade do rei na vida no Além.
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Administração e hierarquia
O faraó – “dono do universo, senhor e pai de todos os homens, expressão terrena dos deuses” – tinha o pesado fardo de governar todo o Egito na maat (justiça). Seus súditos mais fiéis o auxiliavam nessa missão, e muitos assuntos civis eram delegados ao vizir, que se situava imediatamente abaixo do faraó em autoridade e a quem outros funcionários do Palácio se subordinavam. Por essa razão, o vizir acumulava múltiplas competências: chefe de justiça e da polícia; controlador de obras públicas, do fisco e da chancelaria; presidente do conselho de guerra – enquanto chefe do exército – e também do tribunal de justiça, para os casos mais complexos. Em suma, gozava de plenos poderes e governava em nome do rei. Tal acúmulo de cargos levou ao estabelecimento de uma burocracia marcadamente hierárquica. O Egito se subdividia em distritos administrativos governados por senhores locais que tinham uma administração própria, formada por funcionários que constituíam uma elite e gozavam do privilégio de isenção de servidão. Abaixo deles vinham os técnicos, funcionários subalternos, oficiais, simples prelados, escribas, supervisores, trabalhadores qualificados e artistas. Esses não viviam no luxo, tampouco na pobreza. Não raro, alguém dessa posição chegava ao topo do Estado.
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Amuletos egípcios
O amuleto é um objeto mágico que, uma vez usado ou fixado em uma vestimenta, acreditava-se defender tanto os vivos como os mortos de todos os perigos. Muitos deles asseguravam a sobrevivência dos defuntos para superarem, incólumes, as ameaças que encontrariam ao longo de seu caminho no Além. O poder de sua magia era determinado pela imagem que representava e pelo tipo de material de que era feito, as cores escolhidas e todas as inscrições ou fórmulas nele gravadas. Os egípcios usavam quatro palavras diferentes para defini-los:
• meket, termo usado no Antigo Império (2592-2118 a.C.), uma declinação do verbo mki, que significa “proteger”;
• sa, do mesmo período que o termo meket, também usado como única palavra para significar “proteção”;
• wdja, usado no Médio Império (1980–1700 a.C.), originado de um termo que significa “intacto, bem conservado”;
• nehet, que significa “refúgio, proteção”, palavra típica do Novo Império (1539-1076 a.C.), derivada do verbo nhi, “proteger”.
O posicionamento dos amuletos sobre o defunto era determinado por suas respectivas funções. A múmia ideal era literalmente coberta com esses objetos mágicos, colocados entre as camadas de bandagens que envolviam o corpo do defunto. Alguns amuletos eram usados isoladamente, enquanto outros – como o olho wedjat, o pilar do djed e o escaravelho – eram colocados em quantidades maiores sobre o mesmo corpo.
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As mulheres no Egito Antigo
Os cânones egípcios de beleza são fáceis de perceber graças às idealizações da arte. Uma mulher egípcia de classe alta, que obedece às regras sociais e merece respeito do marido e da família, é caracterizada por uma beleza eternamente jovem. Sua figura é sempre esbelta. Mulheres grávidas ou mulheres com barriga protuberante nunca são representadas. A mulher casada desempenhava um papel maior na moral e na vida dos egípcios, em comparação com qualquer outra civilização antiga.
Os limites entre medicamentos e produtos de beleza eram muitas vezes imprecisos. No mundo egípcio, o cuidado e a limpeza do corpo de uma pessoa eram parte fundamental da higiene diária. Havia numerosas loções, pomadas, cremes e corantes.
Uma mistura verde-escura de malaquita e galena, combinada com água ou outras substâncias resinosas, era aplicada no contorno dos olhos e nas bordas das pálpebras como proteção contra o calor e a luz ofuscante. Um pequeno bastão era usado para estender as linhas pretas além do canto dos olhos, acentuando a intensidade do olhar. As mulheres adoravam colorir as bochechas com ocre vermelho, que também era a base para um corante labial, enquanto outro pigmento vermelho era usado para tingir as palmas das mãos e as solas dos pés, assim como os cabelos.
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Blue Faience Bowl
Cat. 3370
The bright blue color of this beautiful vitrified ceramic bowl immediately evokes one of the epithets of the goddess Hathor as the “Lady of Turquoise.” Hathor was the cow goddess of love, beauty and fertility, so bowls of this type have often been found in temples dedicated to her. It is decorated with a tilapia fish holding two lotus flowers in its mouth: one closed as a bud and the other with an open corolla, symbolizing the themes of fertility and suggesting the votive practice that probably led young Egyptian women to donate them at the temple when praying for fertility and greater generative power in exchange.
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Blue Faience Bowl
Cat. 3370
The bright blue color of this beautiful vitrified ceramic bowl immediately evokes one of the epithets of the goddess Hathor as the “Lady of Turquoise.” Hathor was the cow goddess of love, beauty and fertility, so bowls of this type have often been found in temples dedicated to her. It is decorated with a tilapia fish holding two lotus flowers in its mouth: one closed as a bud and the other with an open corolla, symbolizing the themes of fertility and suggesting the votive practice that probably led young Egyptian women to donate them at the temple when praying for fertility and greater generative power in exchange.
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Blue Faience Bowl
Cat. 3370
The bright blue color of this beautiful vitrified ceramic bowl immediately evokes one of the epithets of the goddess Hathor as the “Lady of Turquoise.” Hathor was the cow goddess of love, beauty and fertility, so bowls of this type have often been found in temples dedicated to her. It is decorated with a tilapia fish holding two lotus flowers in its mouth: one closed as a bud and the other with an open corolla, symbolizing the themes of fertility and suggesting the votive practice that probably led young Egyptian women to donate them at the temple when praying for fertility and greater generative power in exchange.
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Blue Faience Bowl
Cat. 3370
The bright blue color of this beautiful vitrified ceramic bowl immediately evokes one of the epithets of the goddess Hathor as the “Lady of Turquoise.” Hathor was the cow goddess of love, beauty and fertility, so bowls of this type have often been found in temples dedicated to her. It is decorated with a tilapia fish holding two lotus flowers in its mouth: one closed as a bud and the other with an open corolla, symbolizing the themes of fertility and suggesting the votive practice that probably led young Egyptian women to donate them at the temple when praying for fertility and greater generative power in exchange.
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Caixa incrustada
S. 16735
Não sabemos que tesouros teriam sido guardados nesta bela caixa. Seriam joias preciosas? Unguentos perfumados? Ou talvez finos enxovais? No antigo Egito não havia armários, por isso objetos deste tipo eram usados para guardar roupas. Em conjunto com as colunas no formato de flores de lótus, a incrustação em pasta vítrea e osso representa o tema da fachada do palácio, remete ao mundo feminino e sugere sensualidade e beleza.
Que mãos abriram a caixa primeiro? Quem era seu proprietário? Que preciosidades continha? Claramente, seu conteúdo não deixou pistas, mas tudo leva a crer que nunca desapontou a pessoa que a possuía.
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Caixa incrustada
S. 16735
Não sabemos que tesouros teriam sido guardados nesta bela caixa. Seriam joias preciosas? Unguentos perfumados? Ou talvez finos enxovais? No antigo Egito não havia armários, por isso objetos deste tipo eram usados para guardar roupas. Em conjunto com as colunas no formato de flores de lótus, a incrustação em pasta vítrea e osso representa o tema da fachada do palácio, remete ao mundo feminino e sugere sensualidade e beleza.
Que mãos abriram a caixa primeiro? Quem era seu proprietário? Que preciosidades continha? Claramente, seu conteúdo não deixou pistas, mas tudo leva a crer que nunca desapontou a pessoa que a possuía.
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Coffin and Mummy of Tararo
Cat. 2220/2, Cat. 2220/3
“I am Tararo, the mistress of the house. I am a noble Egyptian woman who lived almost 3000 years ago. After my earthly death my body was entrusted to skilled priests who took care of it and preserved it, so that it would remain unchanged through all eternity, under layers of bandages soaked in resins and sacred oils.
“The goddess Nut has guarded me all this time; with her body she has protected mine from the spirits of putrefaction, with the sun that she holds in her hands she has ensured the warmth and vital energy that will enable me to live for millions of years. I am Tararo, the mistress of the house, and I will live for all eternity.”
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Coffin and Mummy of Tararo
Cat. 2220/2, Cat. 2220/3
“I am Tararo, the mistress of the house. I am a noble Egyptian woman who lived almost 3000 years ago. After my earthly death my body was entrusted to skilled priests who took care of it and preserved it, so that it would remain unchanged through all eternity, under layers of bandages soaked in resins and sacred oils.
“The goddess Nut has guarded me all this time; with her body she has protected mine from the spirits of putrefaction, with the sun that she holds in her hands she has ensured the warmth and vital energy that will enable me to live for millions of years. I am Tararo, the mistress of the house, and I will live for all eternity.”
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Coffin for a Cat
Cat. 2369
Kemuhep must have been deeply devoted to the goddess Bastet, to the point of deciding to donate a sarcophagus with a mummified cat as a votive offering to the temple dedicated to the goddess, seeking a big favor in return! “Great goddess Bastet, grant me life, strength and a long old age!” So states the formula inscribed in hieroglyphics. The cat sarcophagus has the same shape as those used in that same period, in the 8th century BC, also for humans, while the form reproduces the tomb of Osiris, the god of the afterlife.
This practice was typical in the cult of animals, who were considered sacred in ancient Egypt. Cats, in particular, were very common in Egypt and in many cases they were allowed to share people’s homes.
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Coffin for a Cat
Cat. 2369
Kemuhep must have been deeply devoted to the goddess Bastet, to the point of deciding to donate a sarcophagus with a mummified cat as a votive offering to the temple dedicated to the goddess, seeking a big favor in return! “Great goddess Bastet, grant me life, strength and a long old age!” So states the formula inscribed in hieroglyphics. The cat sarcophagus has the same shape as those used in that same period, in the 8th century BC, also for humans, while the form reproduces the tomb of Osiris, the god of the afterlife.
This practice was typical in the cult of animals, who were considered sacred in ancient Egypt. Cats, in particular, were very common in Egypt and in many cases they were allowed to share people’s homes.
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Colher cosmética zoomórfica
Cat. 3342
Embora seja um objeto pequeno, o refinamento – tanto do material usado para produzir esta colher, como seu acabamento – nos leva a concluir que o proprietário era um alto dignitário da corte egípcia. Observe atentamente sua forma. Já descobriu o que é? É uma gazela com as pernas amarradas, pronta para o sacrifício. Em um dos lados, seu corpo é côncavo para conter a maquiagem; no outro lado, é convexo e decorado. Acredita-se que esta colher tenha sido usada no âmbito funerário, apesar de sua origem se dever a um antigo simbolismo: o da vitória da ordem sobre o caos, da razão humana sobre os instintos animais, do maat (ou justiça) sobre atos ilícitos no Egito, graças ao poder do faraó.
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Colher cosmética zoomórfica
Cat. 3342
Embora seja um objeto pequeno, o refinamento – tanto do material usado para produzir esta colher, como seu acabamento – nos leva a concluir que o proprietário era um alto dignitário da corte egípcia. Observe atentamente sua forma. Já descobriu o que é? É uma gazela com as pernas amarradas, pronta para o sacrifício. Em um dos lados, seu corpo é côncavo para conter a maquiagem; no outro lado, é convexo e decorado. Acredita-se que esta colher tenha sido usada no âmbito funerário, apesar de sua origem se dever a um antigo simbolismo: o da vitória da ordem sobre o caos, da razão humana sobre os instintos animais, do maat (ou justiça) sobre atos ilícitos no Egito, graças ao poder do faraó.
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Cultivando as terras do deus
Trabalhamos para o patrão!
O dia está lindo, a temperatura amena,
os bois puxam sem parar,
o céu está como queremos,
trabalhamos para o patrão!
Esta era a única maneira pela qual camponeses egípcios amenizavam os longos dias de trabalho árduo sob o sol: cantando velhas canções. Na realidade, suas condições de vida e de labuta nem de longe guardavam semelhança com as bucólicas cenas agrícolas retratadas nas tumbas dos nobres. Heródoto dizia que o Egito era “uma dádiva do Nilo” e, com certeza, as condições ambientais, o clima, a flora, a fauna, a colheita e toda a economia do país, assim como a vida do povo egípcio, dependiam do grande rio e de sua cheia que dividia os ciclos sazonais. Os principais produtos eram o trigo e outros cereais. No entanto, embora ocupasse o degrau mais baixo da escala social, o camponês era a verdadeira espinha dorsal da nação. Quando as águas do Nilo se retraíam após as enchentes anuais, fertilizando o solo, os camponeses começavam a trabalhar a “Terra Negra” (Kemet para os antigos egípcios), dedicando-se principalmente à restauração dos canais de irrigação, dos córregos e das barragens muito danificadas pelas inundações.
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Culto de animais
Os deuses egípcios se manifestavam de várias maneiras, e muitos deles assumiam formas animais. Não é de admirar, portanto, que os animais associados a divindades específicas fossem adorados, tendo seus corpos mumificados. Várias razões explicam por que os animais eram embalsamados. Nos templos, escolhia-se um animal em particular associado ao deus e que, acreditava-se, era considerado sua encarnação. Depois de morto, o corpo do animal era mumificado e colocado em um caixão que poderia ser de terracota, pedra, bronze ou madeira. Animais mumificados também eram levados ao templo como oferendas votivas, como se lê às vezes nas inscrições associadas a eles. De fato, nos templos há catacumbas ou depósitos votivos repletos de múmias animais que os peregrinos traziam como oferendas. Nos templos maiores foram encontradas galerias contendo milhares de múmias de animais, especialmente de gatos, para a deusa Bastet; de cães, para o deus Anúbis; de falcões, para o deus Hórus, e de íbis, para o deus Thoth. As múmias eram acompanhadas de objetos em vários materiais, incluindo estátuas de divindades, estatuetas de bronze ou estelas de pedra calcária diante das quais se depositavam as oferendas para os deuses.
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Cultos ao longo do Nilo
O Egito conheceu muitíssimos deuses e deusas. Quando a região foi unificada sob o poder dos primeiros reis, as cidades não estavam dispostas a renunciar ao seu próprio deus ou grupo de deuses. Alguns desses deuses não lograram ampliar sua influência para fora de sua cidade, mas outros, por vários motivos, ultrapassaram as fronteiras de seu território original para serem venerados em todo o Egito. Por isso, cada localidade interpretava o divino a seu modo, atribuindo-lhe diferentes nomes, funções e formas.
Uma característica da religião egípcia era a associação de duas ou três divindades para formar um único deus ou deusa. Esse sistema de combinações (sincretismo) permitia que uma divindade assumisse recursos e atributos de outra. Outra maneira de combinar diferentes divindades envolvia a criação de famílias divinas: Osíris, com seu principal centro de culto em Abidos, estava unido a Ísis; em Tebas, Amon estava unido a Mut e Khonsu era seu filho; em Mênfis, Ptah estava unido à deusa Sekhmet, e Nefertum era filho deles. No entanto, vale afirmar que essas divindades existiam como entidades independentes antes de serem reunidas nessas famílias.
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Câmara dos enigmas
[Chamber of Enigmas]
Visite a Câmara dos Enigmas e aprecie as experiências visuais.
[Visit the Chamber of Enigmas and enjoy the visual experiences.]
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Description de L’Egypte
[Description of Egypt]
The French invasion of Egypt (1798–1801), ordered by Napoleon, was an attempt to found a colony, thus reinforcing French domination in the Mediterranean basin.
The expedition was a military and political fiasco – and it changed the face of the Earth: by revealing the splendor of a mysterious and forgotten civilization, it gave birth to Egyptology.
The group of 167 scholars – “Les savants” – among the 500 civilians who accompanied the army included 21 mathematicians, 3 astronomers, 17 civil engineers, 13 naturalists and mining engineers, 4 architects, 8 draftsmen, and 10 men of letters. For the greater glory of the French Republic they were to find the vestiges of Pharaonic Egypt, the “cradle of the science and art of all humanity” as Napoleon put it in February 1802, when he ordered the Imperial Press to begin publication of the cultural and scientific spoils of the Egyptian expedition. A team of 400 copper engravers worked for twenty years on Description de L’Egypte. A veritable ethnographic and geographic compendium, this monumental work comprises ten folio volumes and two anthologies. It contains 837 copper engravings and more than 3,000 illustrations in total, some of them more than a meter in length.
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Egito Antigo: do cotidiano à eternidade
A exposição não tem a pretensão de abranger completamente o assunto, mas busca oferecer um vislumbre dessa cultura mítica (quarto milênio a.C. – século primeiro a.C.) e um resumo sobre algumas de suas peculiaridades, usos, costumes e hábitos específicos. O percurso expositivo é dividido em três partes: vida cotidiana, religião e costumes funerários.
A civilização egípcia era extremamente hierarquizada e administrada por burocratas que respondiam ao único dirigente legítimo do país: o faraó.
A religião egípcia sempre foi politeísta, caracterizada pela crença em um grande número de divindades superiores e inferiores. O culto oficial dos deuses ocorria nos templos. Os deuses egípcios se manifestavam de várias maneiras, e muitos deles também assumiam a forma animal. Tão logo ascendiam ao trono, os faraós dedicavam grande parte de seus recursos à criação de templos e tumbas monumentais. A eternidade, a preservação do corpo do defunto e sua consequente sobrevivência após a morte são três aspectos do mesmo conceito. A prática de mumificação parece ter sido favorecida pela disseminação da crença de que, para desfrutar da vida eterna, um egípcio tinha de se submeter a um julgamento divino presidido pelo deus Osíris.
A possibilidade de continuar a viver era assegurada por um conjunto complexo de objetos rituais e mágicos. Desde as origens e até o fim da civilização egípcia antiga, o sarcófago sempre continha um universo de crenças religiosas. O sarcófago garante ao defunto a regeneração eterna de cada indivíduo.
Paolo Marini
Pieter Tjabbes
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Enigma da múmia
[Enigma of the Mummy]
Entre na cabine e posicione-se sobre as sandálias egípcias. Observe as várias fases à sua frente.
[Enter the booth and stand on the Egyptian sandals. Observe the various phases in front of you.]
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Escaravelho-coração de Nek
Cat. 5995
“Oh meu coração de minha mãe,
não fique contra mim como testemunha,
não se oponha a mim no tribunal,
não me hostilize na presença dos guardiões da balança...”
Com esta fórmula mágica, escrita na base do escaravelho-coração, o falecido Nek garantia que passaria ileso pelo julgamento do deus Osíris e chegaria com segurança à vida no Além. De acordo com o conceito egípcio, o coração era a sede do pensamento humano e, portanto, órgão indispensável para o defunto, mesmo após a morte terrena.
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Escaravelho-coração de Nek
Cat. 5995
“Oh meu coração de minha mãe,
não fique contra mim como testemunha,
não se oponha a mim no tribunal,
não me hostilize na presença dos guardiões da balança...”
Com esta fórmula mágica, escrita na base do escaravelho-coração, o falecido Nek garantia que passaria ileso pelo julgamento do deus Osíris e chegaria com segurança à vida no Além. De acordo com o conceito egípcio, o coração era a sede do pensamento humano e, portanto, órgão indispensável para o defunto, mesmo após a morte terrena.
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Estatuetas de bronze como representação de divindades
O panteão egípcio é surpreendente, não só pelo grande número de divindades adoradas ao longo de todo o vale do Nilo, mas também pela coexistência de um culto estatal e um culto privado, que ocorriam em dois níveis paralelos. Algumas divindades eram reverenciadas em quase todo o país, enquanto outras eram veneradas apenas em locais específicos, os templos a elas dedicados.
Era comum representar esse panteão egípcio com pequenas estatuetas de bronze cinzelado de alguns centímetros de altura, como estas produzidas com a técnica de fundição de cera perdida. Não havia preferência particular entre as representações da divindade em forma animal ou humana, mas uma tendência para tomar como modelo as estátuas monumentais. Embora o uso específico das estatuetas não tenha sido precisamente esclarecido, o fato de algumas delas terem sido encontradas em grandes templos sugere uma função votiva: eram provavelmente objetos mágicos doados aos templos para servirem de intermediários entre a pessoa que faz a oferenda e a divindade.
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Estatuetas do Ba de Iuefentahat
Cat. 6963/1, Cat. 6963/3
O dia do infortúnio se aproxima de mim,
e ficas ao meu lado como um [demônio?].
Assim é quem sai e se entrega a ele.
Ó minha alma
tu és capaz de consolar a miséria na vida,
e me desencorajas da morte, antes que eu chegue a ela:
faze que o oeste seja doce para mim!
Um dos elementos que compunham a alma do defunto era ba, imaginado como um pássaro com cabeça humana. Suas asas permitiam que se movimentasse livremente na tumba e na vida no Além.
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Estatuetas do Ba de Iuefentahat
Cat. 6963/1, Cat. 6963/3
O dia do infortúnio se aproxima de mim,
e ficas ao meu lado como um [demônio?].
Assim é quem sai e se entrega a ele.
Ó minha alma
tu és capaz de consolar a miséria na vida,
e me desencorajas da morte, antes que eu chegue a ela:
faze que o oeste seja doce para mim!
Um dos elementos que compunham a alma do defunto era ba, imaginado como um pássaro com cabeça humana. Suas asas permitiam que se movimentasse livremente na tumba e na vida no Além.
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Estatuetas em Madeira dos Quatro Filhos do Deus Hórus
Cat. 705, Cat. 706, Cat. 707, Cat. 708
Anúbis, o deus chacal, era o deus da mumificação. Presidia o “pavilhão” onde ocorria o complexo trabalho de mumificação. Mas a proteção dos órgãos do defunto era confiada diretamente aos quatro gênios funerários, filhos do deus Hórus: Imsety, com cabeça humana; Qebehsenuef, com cabeça de falcão; Hapi, com cabeça de babuíno, e Duamutef, com cabeça de cão.
Por esse motivo, a partir do Novo Império, as tampas dos vasos canópicos usados para preservar o intestino tinham formato zoomórfico e reproduziam as características dos filhos de Hórus, indispensáveis para o sucesso do ritual de mumificação.
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Estatuetas em Madeira dos Quatro Filhos do Deus Hórus
Cat. 705, Cat. 706, Cat. 707, Cat. 708
Anúbis, o deus chacal, era o deus da mumificação. Presidia o “pavilhão” onde ocorria o complexo trabalho de mumificação. Mas a proteção dos órgãos do defunto era confiada diretamente aos quatro gênios funerários, filhos do deus Hórus: Imsety, com cabeça humana; Qebehsenuef, com cabeça de falcão; Hapi, com cabeça de babuíno, e Duamutef, com cabeça de cão.
Por esse motivo, a partir do Novo Império, as tampas dos vasos canópicos usados para preservar o intestino tinham formato zoomórfico e reproduziam as características dos filhos de Hórus, indispensáveis para o sucesso do ritual de mumificação.
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Estatuetas em bronze
O panteão egípcio surpreende pelo número e variedade de deuses venerados no Vale do Nilo. Enquanto algumas divindades eram cultuadas em todas as partes do país, outras eram veneradas localmente. Cada divindade tinha seu próprio lugar de devoção: Osíris era o deus de Abidos; Thoth, o deus de Hermópolis; Bastet, a deusa de Bubastis; Amon, o deus de Tebas; Montu, o deus de Armant, e assim por diante.
Peregrinos empreendiam longas jornadas aos centros de culto, que terminavam com a apresentação de uma oferenda. Essa tradição pode ter levado a uma imensa produção de estatuetas de bronze representando as divindades na forma de pessoas, animais ou híbridos dos dois. Você consegue identificar a deusa-gato, Bastet, nestas imagens? E o touro Ápis? Observe-os individualmente: cada um deles conta uma longa história...
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Estatuetas em bronze
O panteão egípcio surpreende pelo número e variedade de deuses venerados no Vale do Nilo. Enquanto algumas divindades eram cultuadas em todas as partes do país, outras eram veneradas localmente. Cada divindade tinha seu próprio lugar de devoção: Osíris era o deus de Abidos; Thoth, o deus de Hermópolis; Bastet, a deusa de Bubastis; Amon, o deus de Tebas; Montu, o deus de Armant, e assim por diante.
Peregrinos empreendiam longas jornadas aos centros de culto, que terminavam com a apresentação de uma oferenda. Essa tradição pode ter levado a uma imensa produção de estatuetas de bronze representando as divindades na forma de pessoas, animais ou híbridos dos dois. Você consegue identificar a deusa-gato, Bastet, nestas imagens? E o touro Ápis? Observe-os individualmente: cada um deles conta uma longa história...
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Estela falsa-porta de Baki
(Cat. 1551)
Os antigos egípcios não acreditavam que a vida após a morte acontecesse num lugar geográfico e espacialmente limitado, mas sim numa espécie de dimensão paralela, muito semelhante à vida terrena, onde o ka, ou alma, do defunto podia se movimentar livremente.
As falsas-portas permitiriam que o ka viajasse da câmara do sarcófago para a outra dimensão e vice-versa. Além disso, as estelas falsas-portas não apenas permitiriam tal movimentação do ka, mas também forneceriam as oferendas funerárias que garantiriam sua sobrevivência. O proprietário desta estela falsa-porta em calcário pintado de vermelho era Baki, que certamente ansiava por desfrutar das liberdades prometidas.
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Estela falsa-porta de Baki
(Cat. 1551)
Os antigos egípcios não acreditavam que a vida após a morte acontecesse num lugar geográfico e espacialmente limitado, mas sim numa espécie de dimensão paralela, muito semelhante à vida terrena, onde o ka, ou alma, do defunto podia se movimentar livremente.
As falsas-portas permitiriam que o ka viajasse da câmara do sarcófago para a outra dimensão e vice-versa. Além disso, as estelas falsas-portas não apenas permitiriam tal movimentação do ka, mas também forneceriam as oferendas funerárias que garantiriam sua sobrevivência. O proprietário desta estela falsa-porta em calcário pintado de vermelho era Baki, que certamente ansiava por desfrutar das liberdades prometidas.
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Estátua da Deusa Sekhmet
Cat. 262
“Sou a deusa Sekhmet, a leoa. Sou a filha do deus do sol, Ra, esposa do deus Ptah, mãe do deus Nefertum. Sou venerada pela minha ferocidade, a incorporação dos raios do sol. Minha respiração cria o deserto porque meu hálito é de fogo, temido até pela serpente Apopis e pelo deus Seth. Fui instrumento da vingança de Ra contra a maldade dos homens. O sangue deles me embriagou, e minha sede foi aplacada por engano: bebi cerveja vermelha em lugar de sangue humano. Meus olhos ficaram pesados, o sol se apagou e, ao acordar, extensas ladainhas de orações e oferendas me mantiveram afastada nos séculos posteriores.”
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Estátua da Deusa Sekhmet
Cat. 262
“Sou a deusa Sekhmet, a leoa. Sou a filha do deus do sol, Ra, esposa do deus Ptah, mãe do deus Nefertum. Sou venerada pela minha ferocidade, a incorporação dos raios do sol. Minha respiração cria o deserto porque meu hálito é de fogo, temido até pela serpente Apopis e pelo deus Seth. Fui instrumento da vingança de Ra contra a maldade dos homens. O sangue deles me embriagou, e minha sede foi aplacada por engano: bebi cerveja vermelha em lugar de sangue humano. Meus olhos ficaram pesados, o sol se apagou e, ao acordar, extensas ladainhas de orações e oferendas me mantiveram afastada nos séculos posteriores.”
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Estátua de Esfinge
No Egito antigo, a esfinge representava a imagem divina do rei, considerado o filho do deus-sol Ra. O leão era o animal que incorporava a energia solar, sendo a ele associada a cabeça do rei. Durante o Período Romano (30 a.C.–395 d.C.), as estátuas em forma de esfinge eram colocadas nas entradas das tumbas, como símbolo do renascimento, garantido pelo ciclo solar, na vida após a morte. Certa rigidez na postura, que contrasta com a definição detalhada da massa muscular e da caixa torácica, pode ser observada nas esfinges do período, como as apresentadas nesta exposição.
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False-door stela of Baki
Cat. 1551
The ancient Egyptians did not think that the afterlife was a geographically and spatially bounded place, but rather a sort of parallel dimension, very similar to earthly life, where the ka, or soul, of the deceased could move freely.
The false doors allowed the ka to travel from the coffin chamber to the hereafter and vice versa. Furthermore, the false-door stelae not only allowed the ka to move between the two dimensions, but provided it with the funeral offerings that guaranteed its survival. The owner of this false-door stela in red-painted limestone was called Baki, who was most certainly looking forward to enjoying the freedoms it promised.
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False-door stela of Baki
Cat. 1551
The ancient Egyptians did not think that the afterlife was a geographically and spatially bounded place, but rather a sort of parallel dimension, very similar to earthly life, where the ka, or soul, of the deceased could move freely.
The false doors allowed the ka to travel from the coffin chamber to the hereafter and vice versa. Furthermore, the false-door stelae not only allowed the ka to move between the two dimensions, but provided it with the funeral offerings that guaranteed its survival. The owner of this false-door stela in red-painted limestone was called Baki, who was most certainly looking forward to enjoying the freedoms it promised.
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Four Wooden Statuettes depicting the Sons of the God Horus
Cat. 705, Cat. 706, Cat. 707, Cat. 708
The god of mummification was Anubis, the jackal god. It was he who presided over the “pavilion” where the complex work of mummification took place. The protection of the organs of the deceased, however, was directly entrusted to the four funerary genii, sons of the god Horus: Imsety, with a human head; Qebehsenuef, with the head of a falcon; Hapi with the head of a baboon and Duamutef with the head of a dog.
For this reason, starting from the New Kingdom, the lids of the canopic jars, used to preserve the intestines, were zoomorphic figures. They reproduced the features of the children of Horus, indispensable for the success of the mummification ritual.
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Four Wooden Statuettes depicting the Sons of the God Horus
Cat. 705, Cat. 706, Cat. 707, Cat. 708
The god of mummification was Anubis, the jackal god. It was he who presided over the “pavilion” where the complex work of mummification took place. The protection of the organs of the deceased, however, was directly entrusted to the four funerary genii, sons of the god Horus: Imsety, with a human head; Qebehsenuef, with the head of a falcon; Hapi with the head of a baboon and Duamutef with the head of a dog.
For this reason, starting from the New Kingdom, the lids of the canopic jars, used to preserve the intestines, were zoomorphic figures. They reproduced the features of the children of Horus, indispensable for the success of the mummification ritual.
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Fragment of a Magical Statue
Cat. 3031
Egypt was considered by the Egyptians to be the most beautiful place on earth, with the long Nile making the land fertile and gardens luxuriant. However, the high temperatures and climatic conditions also meant there were many snakes and scorpions, some of them extremely venomous. People were frequently bitten or stung. Fortunately, there were several magical antidotes that were supposed to heal these wounds, including water made magical by its contact with the formulas inscribed on statues like this one. In this magical statue fragment, we see the god Horus standing between two stalks topped by a hawk and a lotus flower, respectively, stepping on crocodiles and holding snakes and a scorpion in his hands.
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Fragment of a Magical Statue
Cat. 3031
Egypt was considered by the Egyptians to be the most beautiful place on earth, with the long Nile making the land fertile and gardens luxuriant. However, the high temperatures and climatic conditions also meant there were many snakes and scorpions, some of them extremely venomous. People were frequently bitten or stung. Fortunately, there were several magical antidotes that were supposed to heal these wounds, including water made magical by its contact with the formulas inscribed on statues like this one. In this magical statue fragment, we see the god Horus standing between two stalks topped by a hawk and a lotus flower, respectively, stepping on crocodiles and holding snakes and a scorpion in his hands.
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Fragment of a Statue of a Priest (head)
Cat. 3141
Egyptian temples were sacred places and not everyone was allowed to enter them. Furthermore, the chosen few, including the pharaoh and the priests, could do so only after submitting their bodies to careful ceremonial washing. At that time, the use of animal skins for clothing was considered impure, so they could only wear pure white linen. Hair was also considered impure, so a feature that made it possible to identify a priest was his shaven head. The fragment of a statue exhibited here must have belonged to a priest: it portrays him as a man with a broad forehead and the modeling of the face is delicately varied. Moreover, considering the workmanship, this must have been a high-ranking figure who commissioned the statue from a royal workshop.
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Fragment of a Statue of a Priest (head)
Cat. 3141
Egyptian temples were sacred places and not everyone was allowed to enter them. Furthermore, the chosen few, including the pharaoh and the priests, could do so only after submitting their bodies to careful ceremonial washing. At that time, the use of animal skins for clothing was considered impure, so they could only wear pure white linen. Hair was also considered impure, so a feature that made it possible to identify a priest was his shaven head. The fragment of a statue exhibited here must have belonged to a priest: it portrays him as a man with a broad forehead and the modeling of the face is delicately varied. Moreover, considering the workmanship, this must have been a high-ranking figure who commissioned the statue from a royal workshop.
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Fragment of an Anthropoid Sarcophagus Lid
Cat. 2208
“When the chisel finishes striking you, you will be beautiful, just as your owner expects. For you I chose the finest limestone, the brightest colors, made with precious minerals. I am giving you a nice round face, framed by a full wig, elegant eyes, elongated with sea silk, with lips pressed tightly together. I put on you a refined pleated tunic, tied around the waist, and for your protection I have depicted the most benevolent of all gods: the goddess Nut, with her great wings, who will embrace you for eternity.
“I have carved you with devotion, because I work for the pharaoh and his dignitaries. You will belong to one of them and you will take his place if his body should be possessed by the spirits of putrefaction.”
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Fragment of an Anthropoid Sarcophagus Lid
Cat. 2208
“When the chisel finishes striking you, you will be beautiful, just as your owner expects. For you I chose the finest limestone, the brightest colors, made with precious minerals. I am giving you a nice round face, framed by a full wig, elegant eyes, elongated with sea silk, with lips pressed tightly together. I put on you a refined pleated tunic, tied around the waist, and for your protection I have depicted the most benevolent of all gods: the goddess Nut, with her great wings, who will embrace you for eternity.
“I have carved you with devotion, because I work for the pharaoh and his dignitaries. You will belong to one of them and you will take his place if his body should be possessed by the spirits of putrefaction.”
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Fragmento de Estátua Mágica
Cat. 3031
Para os egípcios, seu país era o lugar mais bonito do mundo, com o longo Nilo tornando a terra fecunda e os jardins, luxuriantes. No entanto, as altas temperaturas e as condições climáticas favoreciam a ocorrência de muitas cobras e escorpiões, alguns extremamente venenosos. As pessoas eram muitas vezes mordidas ou picadas. Felizmente, havia vários antídotos mágicos que curavam as feridas, incluindo a água, que se tornava mágica quando derramada sobre fórmulas inscritas em estátuas como esta. Neste fragmento de estátua mágica vemos o deus Hórus em pé entre duas hastes encimadas por um falcão e uma flor de lótus, respectivamente, pisando em crocodilos e tendo nas mãos serpentes e um escorpião.
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Fragmento de Estátua Mágica
Cat. 3031
Para os egípcios, seu país era o lugar mais bonito do mundo, com o longo Nilo tornando a terra fecunda e os jardins, luxuriantes. No entanto, as altas temperaturas e as condições climáticas favoreciam a ocorrência de muitas cobras e escorpiões, alguns extremamente venenosos. As pessoas eram muitas vezes mordidas ou picadas. Felizmente, havia vários antídotos mágicos que curavam as feridas, incluindo a água, que se tornava mágica quando derramada sobre fórmulas inscritas em estátuas como esta. Neste fragmento de estátua mágica vemos o deus Hórus em pé entre duas hastes encimadas por um falcão e uma flor de lótus, respectivamente, pisando em crocodilos e tendo nas mãos serpentes e um escorpião.
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Fragmento de Estátua de um Sacerdote (cabeça)
Cat. 3141
Os templos egípcios eram locais sagrados, cujo acesso era permitido apenas a poucos escolhidos. Mesmo o faraó e os sacerdotes, antes de entrarem no recinto, deveriam proceder à meticulosa lavagem ritual de seus corpos. Em seguida, vestiam trajes de linho branco e imaculado, uma vez que vestes confeccionadas com peles de animais eram consideradas impuras. O cabelo era tido como igualmente impuro, por isso a cabeça raspada se tornou característica dos sacerdotes. Presume-se que o fragmento de estátua aqui exposto tenha pertencido a um deles, pois retrata um homem de cabeça grande e formato do rosto delicadamente diferenciado. No que se refere ao trabalho artístico, a estátua foi provavelmente encomendada a um ateliê real por uma figura do alto escalão.
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Fragmento de Estátua de um Sacerdote (cabeça)
Cat. 3141
Os templos egípcios eram locais sagrados, cujo acesso era permitido apenas a poucos escolhidos. Mesmo o faraó e os sacerdotes, antes de entrarem no recinto, deveriam proceder à meticulosa lavagem ritual de seus corpos. Em seguida, vestiam trajes de linho branco e imaculado, uma vez que vestes confeccionadas com peles de animais eram consideradas impuras. O cabelo era tido como igualmente impuro, por isso a cabeça raspada se tornou característica dos sacerdotes. Presume-se que o fragmento de estátua aqui exposto tenha pertencido a um deles, pois retrata um homem de cabeça grande e formato do rosto delicadamente diferenciado. No que se refere ao trabalho artístico, a estátua foi provavelmente encomendada a um ateliê real por uma figura do alto escalão.
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Fragmento de Parede com Cena Agrícola
S. 1262
Trabalhamos para o patrão!
O dia está lindo, a temperatura amena,
Os bois puxam sem parar, o céu está como queremos,
Trabalhamos para o patrão! (música)
Cantando velhas canções, os camponeses egípcios amenizavam seus longos dias de trabalho árduo sob o sol. O calor intenso os obrigava a usar apenas um tipo de saiote curto, chamado shendyt. Era difícil manter o ritmo do trabalho, mas o capataz era taxativo: “Trabalhe para o patrão e receberá uma ótima recompensa!”.
Cenas desse tipo eram comuns nas decorações das paredes das tumbas no Antigo Império. Elas serviam para garantir a perpetuação das oferendas fúnebres, em sua maior parte constituídas por alimentos indispensáveis à sobrevivência do defunto no Além.
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Fragmento de Parede com Cena Agrícola
S. 1262
Trabalhamos para o patrão!
O dia está lindo, a temperatura amena,
Os bois puxam sem parar, o céu está como queremos,
Trabalhamos para o patrão! (música)
Cantando velhas canções, os camponeses egípcios amenizavam seus longos dias de trabalho árduo sob o sol. O calor intenso os obrigava a usar apenas um tipo de saiote curto, chamado shendyt. Era difícil manter o ritmo do trabalho, mas o capataz era taxativo: “Trabalhe para o patrão e receberá uma ótima recompensa!”.
Cenas desse tipo eram comuns nas decorações das paredes das tumbas no Antigo Império. Elas serviam para garantir a perpetuação das oferendas fúnebres, em sua maior parte constituídas por alimentos indispensáveis à sobrevivência do defunto no Além.
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Fragmento de Tampa de um Sarcófago Antropoide
Cat. 2208
“Quando o cinzel acabar de bater em ti, tu ficarás lindo, assim como espera teu proprietário. Para ti, escolhi o melhor calcário, as cores mais brilhantes, feitas com minerais preciosos. A ti estou dando um belo rosto redondo, emoldurado por uma peruca cheia, olhos elegantes, alongados com seda marinha, e lábios cerrados. Foste vestido com uma requintada túnica drapeada, amarrada na cintura, e, para tua proteção, descrevi o mais benevolente de todos os deuses: a deusa Nut, com suas grandes asas, que te abraçará por toda a eternidade. Te esculpi com devoção, porque trabalho para o faraó e seus dignitários. Tu pertencerás a um deles e tomarás seu lugar se o corpo for possuído pelos espíritos da putrefação.”
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Fragmento de Tampa de um Sarcófago Antropoide
Cat. 2208
“Quando o cinzel acabar de bater em ti, tu ficarás lindo, assim como espera teu proprietário. Para ti, escolhi o melhor calcário, as cores mais brilhantes, feitas com minerais preciosos. A ti estou dando um belo rosto redondo, emoldurado por uma peruca cheia, olhos elegantes, alongados com seda marinha, e lábios cerrados. Foste vestido com uma requintada túnica drapeada, amarrada na cintura, e, para tua proteção, descrevi o mais benevolente de todos os deuses: a deusa Nut, com suas grandes asas, que te abraçará por toda a eternidade. Te esculpi com devoção, porque trabalho para o faraó e seus dignitários. Tu pertencerás a um deles e tomarás seu lugar se o corpo for possuído pelos espíritos da putrefação.”
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Grupo de Estátuas de Nebnetjeru
Cat. 3052
A instituição da família era a pedra angular da sociedade egípcia. Na capela funerária, os antigos egípcios costumavam colocar uma estátua representando o proprietário da tumba ao lado da esposa, unidos em abraço eterno, como neste caso da estátua de Nebnetjeru e sua mulher, Amenhotep. Nebnetjeru usa uma peruca curta e veste uma saia longa até os tornozelos, enquanto a peruca volumosa e a túnica justa e longa embelezam a figura de Amenhotep. Na cena, ambos são venerados pelos filhos, representados em baixo-relevo.
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Grupo de Estátuas de Nebnetjeru
Cat. 3052
A instituição da família era a pedra angular da sociedade egípcia. Na capela funerária, os antigos egípcios costumavam colocar uma estátua representando o proprietário da tumba ao lado da esposa, unidos em abraço eterno, como neste caso da estátua de Nebnetjeru e sua mulher, Amenhotep. Nebnetjeru usa uma peruca curta e veste uma saia longa até os tornozelos, enquanto a peruca volumosa e a túnica justa e longa embelezam a figura de Amenhotep. Na cena, ambos são venerados pelos filhos, representados em baixo-relevo.
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Heart scarab of Nek
Cat. 5995
My heart, of my mother, my mother's heart,
do not stand up against me as a witness,
do not accuse me as a witness,
do not accuse me in the court,
do not turn against me in the presence of the Servants of the Scales...”
With this magic formula, written on the base of the heart scarab, the deceased Nek made sure he would pass the judgment of the god Osiris unscathed and arrive safely in the afterlife. The heart, according to the Egyptian concept, was the seat of human thought, so it was indispensable to the deceased even after his earthly death.
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Heart scarab of Nek
Cat. 5995
My heart, of my mother, my mother's heart,
do not stand up against me as a witness,
do not accuse me as a witness,
do not accuse me in the court,
do not turn against me in the presence of the Servants of the Scales...”
With this magic formula, written on the base of the heart scarab, the deceased Nek made sure he would pass the judgment of the god Osiris unscathed and arrive safely in the afterlife. The heart, according to the Egyptian concept, was the seat of human thought, so it was indispensable to the deceased even after his earthly death.
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Inlaid Box
S. 16735
Who knows what treasures this beautiful box was made to contain. Was it perhaps once filled with precious jewels? Perfumed ointments? Or perhaps fine linen? In ancient Egypt at the time of this box, closets for storing linen did not exist; instead they used containers of this type. The inlay in glass paste and bone, depicting the motif of the palace facade together with the lotiform columns, suggests the female world, with sensuousness and beauty.
Whose hands opened it first? What did its owner look like? What precious things did it contain? Clearly, whatever it was, it has left no trace, yet it almost certainly never disappointed the expectations of the person who possessed it.
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Inlaid Box
S. 16735
Who knows what treasures this beautiful box was made to contain. Was it perhaps once filled with precious jewels? Perfumed ointments? Or perhaps fine linen? In ancient Egypt at the time of this box, closets for storing linen did not exist; instead they used containers of this type. The inlay in glass paste and bone, depicting the motif of the palace facade together with the lotiform columns, suggests the female world, with sensuousness and beauty.
Whose hands opened it first? What did its owner look like? What precious things did it contain? Clearly, whatever it was, it has left no trace, yet it almost certainly never disappointed the expectations of the person who possessed it.
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Mesa de Oferendas de Montuemhat
Cat. 1760
Oferendas funerárias eram os elementos que garantiriam ao defunto a vida eterna. Sem elas, a mumificação, a tumba, os equipamentos funerários e todos os outros objetos seriam inúteis. Para continuar vivendo no Além, o morto precisaria de comida. As mesas de oferendas representavam simbolicamente os alimentos indispensáveis e, desta forma, asseguravam que o defunto tivesse oferendas funerárias por toda a eternidade. Se observarmos o objeto com mais atenção, perceberemos que representa dois pães redondos, um jarro com bico vertendo água em uma bacia com os nomes dos sete óleos sagrados usados para ungir o corpo. Para completar, a parte externa inclui uma descrição da purificação e o ritual da oferenda.
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Mesa de Oferendas de Montuemhat
Cat. 1760
Oferendas funerárias eram os elementos que garantiriam ao defunto a vida eterna. Sem elas, a mumificação, a tumba, os equipamentos funerários e todos os outros objetos seriam inúteis. Para continuar vivendo no Além, o morto precisaria de comida. As mesas de oferendas representavam simbolicamente os alimentos indispensáveis e, desta forma, asseguravam que o defunto tivesse oferendas funerárias por toda a eternidade. Se observarmos o objeto com mais atenção, perceberemos que representa dois pães redondos, um jarro com bico vertendo água em uma bacia com os nomes dos sete óleos sagrados usados para ungir o corpo. Para completar, a parte externa inclui uma descrição da purificação e o ritual da oferenda.
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Museo Egizio
O Museo Egizio de Turim, Itália, é o mais antigo museu dedicado à civilização faraônica e contém o segundo maior acervo de antiguidades egípcias do mundo, o mais importante fora do Egito.
O museu resulta de uma jornada de quase 200 anos, iniciada com as primeiras antiguidades egípcias adquiridas pela Casa da Savoia no século XVII e depois expandida com a compra do acervo de Drovetti que, em 1824, possibilitou a criação deste museu.
No Museu Egizio o visitante percorre cinco andares de exposições que abrigam cerca de 3.300 artefatos para contar a história da instituição, das coleções e dos contextos arqueológicos dos objetos expostos. Visitar o museu significa viajar no tempo, por mais de 4.000 anos de história; encontrar objetos inestimáveis, como a múmia pré-dinástica natural que remonta ao V milênio a.C., o papiro que documenta a primeira tumba da história e as estátuas dos faraós lendários, especialmente a de Ramsés II, um dos personagens mais famosos do Egito Antigo.
A configuração dos contextos arqueológicos, dedicada às descobertas mais importantes do museu, permite ao visitante mergulhar na vida cotidiana e na cultura do Egito Antigo, como é o caso da sala dedicada à vila de trabalhadores de Deir el-Medina. Nessa sala, os objetos expostos contam a história dos trabalhadores empregados na construção e decoração das tumbas dos faraós. Outro exemplo é a sala que contém os equipamentos funerários da tumba inviolável do arquiteto Kha e de sua esposa, Merit.
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Múmias e mumificação
A preocupação relacionada com a sobrevivência após a morte levou os egípcios a desenvolverem um conjunto de aparatos monumentais, ritualísticos e mágicos, destinados a assegurar que a pessoa continuaria a viver no Além. A manutenção da integridade do corpo era o pressuposto fundamental para a imortalidade. Por essa razão, os egípcios desenvolveram técnicas complexas de embalsamamento. No final da preparação do corpo, os embalsamadores o embrulhavam cuidadosamente em faixas de linho embebidas em resina usada como adesivo. Amuletos eram colocados entre as bandagens para garantir a proteção de partes específicas do corpo. Além disso, um rolo de papiro inscrito com textos funerários, como o Livro dos Mortos, poderia ser colocado entre as mãos ou as pernas do defunto: continham fórmulas mágicas que lhe serviriam de guia nos perigosos caminhos do Além. Enfim, o corpo era envolvido num grande pano, por sua vez fixado por faixas de linho e cruzado na frente. A múmia assim preparada estava pronta para ser colocada dentro do caixão e para a celebração do funeral.
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Não há ofício tão bom como o do escriba
Ó escriba, não seja preguiçoso, ou será imediatamente domado. Não entregue o coração ao prazer, ou será um fracasso. Escreva com a mão, leia com a boca. Aconselhe-se com os mais sábios… Tem sorte o escriba bem-educado e hábil em sua função.
Os numerosos textos egípcios antigos nos ensinam que o processo de formação de um escriba levava a um conhecimento profundo. Saber escrever indicava o grau de instrução, e não determinada posição profissional de um indivíduo, e, no final do Antigo Império (2592-2118 a.C.), tornou-se um requisito para acesso aos cargos mais altos. Embora fosse ativo nos âmbitos sacerdotal e militar, era na área de administração que o escriba encontrava maiores oportunidades de colocação. Assim, graças à sua erudição, desde o Novo Império (1539- 1076 a.C.) o escriba passou a constituir uma verdadeira “classe intelectual”. O deus lunar Thoth era o patrono dos escribas, o criador das línguas e da escrita, especialmente dos hieróglifos, a escrita sagrada. Uma das funções do escriba era atuar como intérprete de palavras esculpidas para os que não sabiam ler.
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O culto funerário
A crença na vida após a morte no antigo Egito estava intimamente ligada à necessidade de preservar o corpo do defunto. Para esse propósito, desenvolveu-se um complexo processo de embalsamamento que permitiu a conservação de muitos corpos até a atualidade. O destino dos defuntos, no entanto, não era o mesmo para todos: ao faraó cabia o plano celestial. Subia ao céu e se tornava uma estrela, assim como as outras divindades. As pessoas comuns estavam destinadas a um mundo paralelo, para o qual levariam seus mesmos hábitos de vida na Terra.
Acreditava-se que o Reino dos Mortos, governado pelo deus Osíris, localizava-se no Ocidente, onde o sol se punha. Exatamente por isso, as necrópoles se erguiam na margem oeste do Nilo, enquanto as cidades ficavam na margem leste. Ainda segundo a crença, todos os dias, ao amanhecer, a deusa Nut voltava a parir o sol, para o recolher em si ao anoitecer. Essa imagem, assim como os perigos enfrentados pelo sol, estava associada à ideia da jornada difícil que o defunto tinha de empreender para alcançar os campos de Iaru.
Os Textos dos Sarcófagos e, mais tarde, o Livro dos Mortos, além de numerosas outras fórmulas mágicas escritas sobre os objetos pertencentes ao equipamento funerário, serviriam para ajudar os defuntos nessa trajetória e garantir sua vida eterna.
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O escaravelho-coração e o capítulo XXXB do Livro dos Mortos
Durante o processo de mumificação, as vísceras do defunto eram removidas por uma incisão feita em um lado do torso. Após serem tratadas com natrão e enfaixadas, da mesma forma que o corpo, seriam colocadas em vasos canópicos. Os rins, considerados como sede das emoções, e o coração, sede dos sentimentos, eram reintroduzidos na múmia. O coração, em particular, serviria ao defunto no momento de se apresentar perante o tribunal de Osíris. Para enfatizar sua importância, colocava-se sobre o peito da múmia o chamado escaravelho-coração no qual estava gravado o capítulo XXXB do Livro dos Mortos, que recomendava ao coração não testemunhar contra o defunto durante a psicostase (pesagem da alma) e não desmentir sua confissão perante o referido tribunal:
Oh meu coração de minha mãe, não fique contra mim como testemunha, não se oponha a mim no tribunal, não me hostilize na presença do guardião da balança...
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O templo
Os templos egípcios apresentam perfeitamente a transcrição de um pensamento metafísico na pedra. Exibem diferenças estruturais conforme o período histórico. De qualquer forma, não eram lugares dedicados exclusivamente ao culto: especialmente a partir do Novo Império (1539-1076 a.C.), tornaram-se centros administrativos e econômicos das cidades. Cada templo era subdividido em espaços públicos e espaços sagrados, e apenas alguns sacerdotes e o rei tinham acesso a estes últimos. Pode-se fazer uma distinção importante entre os templos dedicados ao culto das divindades e os templos funerários, dedicados ao culto póstumo dos faraós. A parte mais próxima da comunidade era o pilone: duas enormes colunas de pedra que representavam o horizonte e marcavam a entrada do templo. Em seguida vinha um pátio a céu aberto, onde as pessoas se reuniam em festivais religiosos, e o corpo principal consistia em um ou mais salões hipostilos. Sem dúvida, o lugar mais importante do templo era o naos, o tabernáculo onde se guardava a estátua da divindade. Era protegido em toda a sua volta por um “corredor misterioso”, precedido pela chamada “Sala de Ennead”, e também pela sala na qual eram feitas grandes oferendas durante as liturgias anuais. Mais adiante, vinha o Salão Hipostilo, assim chamado em razão das muitas colunas que sustentavam seu telhado.
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Offering Table of Montuemhat
Cat. 1760
The element that guaranteed eternal life to the deceased was the funerary offering. Without it, the mummification, the tomb, the grave goods and all the other objects were useless. The deceased, to go on living in the afterlife, needed to have food. The offering tables symbolically represented this indispensable nourishment, and as such it ensured the deceased had funeral offerings for eternity. If you look at the object more closely, you will notice that it represents two round loaves, a pitcher with a spout is shown pouring water into a basin bearing the names of the seven sacred oils used for anointing the body. For the sake of completeness, the outer band includes a description of purification and the ritual of offering.
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Offering Table of Montuemhat
Cat. 1760
The element that guaranteed eternal life to the deceased was the funerary offering. Without it, the mummification, the tomb, the grave goods and all the other objects were useless. The deceased, to go on living in the afterlife, needed to have food. The offering tables symbolically represented this indispensable nourishment, and as such it ensured the deceased had funeral offerings for eternity. If you look at the object more closely, you will notice that it represents two round loaves, a pitcher with a spout is shown pouring water into a basin bearing the names of the seven sacred oils used for anointing the body. For the sake of completeness, the outer band includes a description of purification and the ritual of offering.
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Ostracon com Inscrição Hierática
S. 6618
Irritado com a carta provocativa que recebeu do escriba do exército Amenemope, o também escriba Hori o ridicularizou por seu limitado conhecimento técnico e deu-lhe uma lição de estilo e clareza literária. Tudo isso é contado neste ostracon, fragmento de um recipiente que substituía as folhas de papiro, mais caras, para a escrita de textos religiosos ou funerários. Os signos nele gravados não são escrita hieroglífica, e sim, hierática. Mais simples e fácil de grafar, essa escrita era empregada no âmbito administrativo. Muitos ostraca, como o aqui exposto, foram encontrados em Deir el-Medina. Eles constituem uma fonte preciosa de informação sobre os habitantes locais e, de maneira mais geral, sobre a economia do Egito no período Ramessida.
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Ostracon com Inscrição Hierática
S. 6618
Irritado com a carta provocativa que recebeu do escriba do exército Amenemope, o também escriba Hori o ridicularizou por seu limitado conhecimento técnico e deu-lhe uma lição de estilo e clareza literária. Tudo isso é contado neste ostracon, fragmento de um recipiente que substituía as folhas de papiro, mais caras, para a escrita de textos religiosos ou funerários. Os signos nele gravados não são escrita hieroglífica, e sim, hierática. Mais simples e fácil de grafar, essa escrita era empregada no âmbito administrativo. Muitos ostraca, como o aqui exposto, foram encontrados em Deir el-Medina. Eles constituem uma fonte preciosa de informação sobre os habitantes locais e, de maneira mais geral, sobre a economia do Egito no período Ramessida.
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Ostrakon with Hieratic Inscription
S. 6618
The scribe Hori was annoyed by the provocative letter sent to him by Amenemope, scribe of the army. So he ridiculed him for his limited technical knowledge and also gave him a lesson in style and literary clarity. All this is recounted by this ostracon, a fragment of an inscribed vase that was used instead of the more costly sheets of papyrus, used for writing religious or funerary texts. The strange signs you see are not hieroglyphic writing, but hieratic. It was used for administrative purposes because it was simpler and easier to write. Many ostraca, like the one on display, come from the site of Deir el-Medina. They are a precious source of information about the inhabitants of the site and more generally the economy of Egypt in the Ramessid period.
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Ostrakon with Hieratic Inscription
S. 6618
The scribe Hori was annoyed by the provocative letter sent to him by Amenemope, scribe of the army. So he ridiculed him for his limited technical knowledge and also gave him a lesson in style and literary clarity. All this is recounted by this ostracon, a fragment of an inscribed vase that was used instead of the more costly sheets of papyrus, used for writing religious or funerary texts. The strange signs you see are not hieroglyphic writing, but hieratic. It was used for administrative purposes because it was simpler and easier to write. Many ostraca, like the one on display, come from the site of Deir el-Medina. They are a precious source of information about the inhabitants of the site and more generally the economy of Egypt in the Ramessid period.
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Piramídeo de Khonsu
Cat. 1622
Os dignitários do Novo Império encomendavam a construção de capelas funerárias sobre seus túmulos, assim como os grandes faraós do Antigo Império haviam construído pirâmides. Embora piramidais, as capelas eram menores e erigidas com tijolos de barro cru. Em termos de simbolismo, sua parte mais importante era o ápice, conhecido como piramídeo, produzido em calcário e coberto com baixos-relevos policromáticos.
O piramídeo era o primeiro elemento arquitetônico a receber os raios do sol da manhã e, nos relevos deste belo exemplo, o sol é representado em todas as suas formas: como o escaravelho Khepri, o sol da manhã; como o deus falcão Ra-Harakhti, o sol do zênite; e como o deus Aton no barco solar, o pôr do sol.
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Piramídeo de Khonsu
Cat. 1622
Os dignitários do Novo Império encomendavam a construção de capelas funerárias sobre seus túmulos, assim como os grandes faraós do Antigo Império haviam construído pirâmides. Embora piramidais, as capelas eram menores e erigidas com tijolos de barro cru. Em termos de simbolismo, sua parte mais importante era o ápice, conhecido como piramídeo, produzido em calcário e coberto com baixos-relevos policromáticos.
O piramídeo era o primeiro elemento arquitetônico a receber os raios do sol da manhã e, nos relevos deste belo exemplo, o sol é representado em todas as suas formas: como o escaravelho Khepri, o sol da manhã; como o deus falcão Ra-Harakhti, o sol do zênite; e como o deus Aton no barco solar, o pôr do sol.
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Pyramidion of Khonsu
Cat. 1622
The dignitaries of the New Kingdom frequently had funerary chapels erected over their tombs, as was the case of the great pharaohs of the Old Kingdom, who built pyramids, although the chapels were smaller and made of unfired bricks. In terms of symbolism, the most important part was the apex, known as the pyramidion, made of limestone and covered with polychrome bas-reliefs.
The pyramidion was the first architectural element that was lit up by the sun’s rays in the morning, and on the reliefs of this beautiful specimen the sun is represented in all its forms: as the scarab Khepri, the morning sun; as the falcon god Ra-Harakhti, the sun of the zenith; and as the god Atum in the solar boat, the setting sun.
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Pyramidion of Khonsu
Cat. 1622
The dignitaries of the New Kingdom frequently had funerary chapels erected over their tombs, as was the case of the great pharaohs of the Old Kingdom, who built pyramids, although the chapels were smaller and made of unfired bricks. In terms of symbolism, the most important part was the apex, known as the pyramidion, made of limestone and covered with polychrome bas-reliefs.
The pyramidion was the first architectural element that was lit up by the sun’s rays in the morning, and on the reliefs of this beautiful specimen the sun is represented in all its forms: as the scarab Khepri, the morning sun; as the falcon god Ra-Harakhti, the sun of the zenith; and as the god Atum in the solar boat, the setting sun.
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Ra e Sekhmet
Segundo o Livro da Vaca Celestial, no passado longínquo o deus Ra governava diretamente os homens na Terra. Eis que, aproveitando-se de sua velhice, os homens conspiraram contra ele.
Para punir a maldade e a rebelião dos homens que criara, Ra encarregou sua filha Sekhmet, a leoa selvagem conhecida como “o olho de Ra”, de destruí-los. Sekhmet passou então a massacrar os homens que haviam fugido para o deserto.
Voltando atrás, Ra decidiu perdoar a humanidade rebelde. Enquanto isso, porém, Sekhmet havia fugido ao controle do pai. Para aplacar a ira e a sede de sangue de Sekhmet, Ra viu-se forçado a recorrer a um expediente. Tingiu cerveja de vermelho, e a deusa bebeu acreditando ser sangue. Embriagada, ela adormeceu. Quando acordou, Sekhmet estava calma e havia esquecido a tarefa que lhe fora confiada.
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Religião
Ao longo de sua história, o antigo Egito foi politeísta. Um viajante que navegasse pelo Nilo do sul ao norte encontraria inúmeras cidades em que o culto local era dedicado a divindades específicas: Hórus em Edfu, Khnum em Esna, Amon em Tebas, Hathor em Dendera, Osíris em Abidos, Ptah em Mênfis e assim por diante.
Uma peculiaridade da religião egípcia era que dois ou três nomes de divindades poderiam ser associados para criar outro deus ou deusa. As divindades egípcias manifestavam--se de várias maneiras, e muitas delas também tinham forma animal. Não é surpresa, portanto, que os animais relacionados com divindades específicas fossem adorados.
O culto oficial ao deus ocorria nos templos – expressões perfeitas de uma visão metafísica em pedra. As áreas eram divididas em públicas e sagradas, e apenas alguns sacerdotes e o rei tinham acesso a estas últimas, sendo a estrutura arquitetônica semelhante a um telescópio que gradualmente passava da luz terrestre para as sombras e, depois, para a escuridão.
O tipo mais pessoal e íntimo de devoção que os egípcios podiam expressar em relação à divindade era o culto votivo, no qual objetos como estatuetas de bronze da divindade eram ofertados aos deuses em troca de favores particulares.
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Sarcófago e Múmia de Tararo
Cat. 2220/2, Cat. 2220/3
“Sou Tararo, a dona da casa. Sou uma nobre egípcia que viveu há quase 3 mil anos. Após minha morte terrena, meu corpo foi confiado a sacerdotes habilidosos que cuidaram dele e o preservaram, para que permanecesse inalterado por toda a eternidade, sob camadas de bandagens embebidas em resinas e óleos sagrados.
A deusa Nut me guardou por todo esse tempo. Com seu corpo, protegeu o meu dos espíritos da putrefação; com o sol que ela traz nas mãos, garantiu o calor e a energia vital que me permitirão viver por milhões de anos. Sou Tararo, a dona da casa, e viverei por toda a eternidade.”
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Sarcófago e Múmia de Tararo
Cat. 2220/2, Cat. 2220/3
“Sou Tararo, a dona da casa. Sou uma nobre egípcia que viveu há quase 3 mil anos. Após minha morte terrena, meu corpo foi confiado a sacerdotes habilidosos que cuidaram dele e o preservaram, para que permanecesse inalterado por toda a eternidade, sob camadas de bandagens embebidas em resinas e óleos sagrados.
A deusa Nut me guardou por todo esse tempo. Com seu corpo, protegeu o meu dos espíritos da putrefação; com o sol que ela traz nas mãos, garantiu o calor e a energia vital que me permitirão viver por milhões de anos. Sou Tararo, a dona da casa, e viverei por toda a eternidade.”
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Sarcófago para Gato
Cat. 2369
Kemuhep deve ter sido um fiel devoto da deusa Bastet, a ponto de doar ao seu templo uma oferenda na forma de sarcófago contendo um gato mumificado. Em contrapartida, ele pedia uma graça especial: “Oh, grande deusa Bastet! Concedei-me vida, força e uma longa e feliz velhice!”. É o que consta na fórmula inscrita em signos hieroglíficos na tampa do sarcófago de gato, cujo formato é semelhante ao daqueles usados para humanos no mesmo século VIII a.C., e cuja tipologia reproduz a tumba de Osíris, o deus associado à vida no Além.
Essa prática era típica do culto de animais, considerados sagrados no Egito Antigo. Os gatos, em particular, eram muito comuns e frequentemente viviam nas casas com as pessoas.
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Sarcófago para Gato
Cat. 2369
Kemuhep deve ter sido um fiel devoto da deusa Bastet, a ponto de doar ao seu templo uma oferenda na forma de sarcófago contendo um gato mumificado. Em contrapartida, ele pedia uma graça especial: “Oh, grande deusa Bastet! Concedei-me vida, força e uma longa e feliz velhice!”. É o que consta na fórmula inscrita em signos hieroglíficos na tampa do sarcófago de gato, cujo formato é semelhante ao daqueles usados para humanos no mesmo século VIII a.C., e cuja tipologia reproduz a tumba de Osíris, o deus associado à vida no Além.
Essa prática era típica do culto de animais, considerados sagrados no Egito Antigo. Os gatos, em particular, eram muito comuns e frequentemente viviam nas casas com as pessoas.
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Sarcófagos e caixões
Novo Império (1539-1076 a.C.)
No início da XVIII Dinastia (1539-1292 a.C.) o caixão tinha decoração policromada simples sobre fundo branco, com uma faixa vertical e quatro faixas transversais na tampa, imitando ataduras de múmia, contendo oferendas e invocações às divindades. O espaço entre as faixas era ocupado por representações dos funerais. Em meados da XVIII Dinastia surgiram sarcófagos com decoração de folhas de ouro ou tinta amarela sobre um fundo preto, que foram gradualmente substituídos no início da XIX Dinastia (1292- 1190 a.C.) por um novo tipo, pintado em cores brilhantes sobre fundo amarelo. O espaço entre as faixas e o texto passou a ser ocupado por cenas de oferendas aos deuses e episódios do Livro dos Mortos.
III Período Intermediário – Período Tardio (1076-332 a.C.)
Durante o III Período Intermediário chamou atenção uma grande difusão dos chamados “caixões amarelos” e dos caixões internos em cartonagem, compreendendo um núcleo central de lama e palha, revestido com gesso e numerosas camadas de linho prensado, embebidas em resina.
Nos tempos romanos, as caixas em cartonagem tendiam a exibir uma imagem mais realista do defunto. As máscaras de gesso e os retratos em encáustica sobre tábuas de madeira evidenciam essa nova sensibilidade artística.
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Sarcófagos e caixões
O item mais importante dos equipamentos funerários era o sarcófago, no qual eram colocados o caixão e o corpo mumificado do defunto. Sua principal função era de ordem prática, ou seja, preservar a integridade do corpo. Essa função de proteção física nunca deixou de existir, mas, ao longo dos séculos, foi transformada tanto no formato como na decoração, à medida que as crenças funerárias se desenvolviam.
Período Pré-dinástico – Antigo Império (3900-2118 a.C.)
No Período Pré-dinástico notam-se as primeiras tentativas de proteger o corpo envolvendo-o em esteiras de vime ou peles de animais. Posteriormente apareceram cestos ou panelas grandes e um simples caixão em argila, oval ou retangular. Os primeiros espécimes de madeira, de forma quadrangular, em que o corpo ainda era enterrado na posição fetal, datam do Período Pré-dinástico. No Antigo Império, os sarcófagos de pedra e os caixões de madeira tinham paredes exteriores lisas ou eram decorados com um tema de “fachada do palácio”, lembrando as habitações terrenas.
Primeiro Período Intermediário – Médio Império (2118-1700 a.C.)
A partir do Antigo Império e em todo o Médio Império, um painel contendo um par de olhos era pintado na extremidade superior externa do caixão, por meio dos quais o defunto enxergava o exterior e poderia manter um vínculo com o mundo dos vivos. Durante o Médio Império, a superfície interna era coberta pelas fórmulas dos Textos dos Sarcófagos e pelas listas de oferendas. Perto do final da XII Dinastia (1939-1759 a.C.) aparecem os caixões antropoides que copiavam a aparência da múmia e serviriam como substitutos do corpo que eventualmente fosse destruído.
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Shabtis de Nespayherhat
S. 1129-1217, S. 1347-1435
Oh, shabti,
se Osíris convocar (o defunto)
para realizar trabalhos no submundo ou para alguma tarefa desagradável necessária por lá,
como homem cumpridor de seu dever, dirás: “Aqui estou!”.
Se fores chamado, servirás lá a qualquer momento cultivando os campos, irrigando as margens do rio, carregando areia de leste a oeste e vice-versa. “Aqui estou!”, dirás.
Fórmula para trazer shabtis à vida, extraída do Livro dos Mortos, Capítulo VI, em tradução livre.
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Shabtis de Nespayherhat
S. 1129-1217, S. 1347-1435
Oh, shabti,
se Osíris convocar (o defunto)
para realizar trabalhos no submundo ou para alguma tarefa desagradável necessária por lá,
como homem cumpridor de seu dever, dirás: “Aqui estou!”.
Se fores chamado, servirás lá a qualquer momento cultivando os campos, irrigando as margens do rio, carregando areia de leste a oeste e vice-versa. “Aqui estou!”, dirás.
Fórmula para trazer shabtis à vida, extraída do Livro dos Mortos, Capítulo VI, em tradução livre.
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Shabtis of Nespayherhat
S. 1129-1217, S. 1347-1435
O these shabti figures,
if Osiris Nespayherhat is called
to perform every task that needs to be done in the afterlife
or some unpleasant work is required there,
as men dedicated to their duties,
you will reply: “Here we are!”
If you are called,
you will serve there at any time
cultivating the fields, irrigating the river banks, carrying sand from east to west
and vice versa.
“Here we are!” you will say.
Formula for bringing the shabti figures to life, from the Book of the Dead, Chapter VI.
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Shabtis of Nespayherhat
S. 1129-1217, S. 1347-1435
O these shabti figures,
if Osiris Nespayherhat is called
to perform every task that needs to be done in the afterlife
or some unpleasant work is required there,
as men dedicated to their duties,
you will reply: “Here we are!”
If you are called,
you will serve there at any time
cultivating the fields, irrigating the river banks, carrying sand from east to west
and vice versa.
“Here we are!” you will say.
Formula for bringing the shabti figures to life, from the Book of the Dead, Chapter VI.
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Statue Group of Nebnetjeru
Cat. 3052
The cornerstone of Egyptian society was the institution of the family. In the funerary chapel, the ancient Egyptians often used to place a statue representing the owner together with his wife, united in an eternal embrace, as in the case of the statue of Nebnetjeru and his wife Amenhotep. He is shown wearing a short wig, covered by a long skirt that reaches to the ankles; she is embellished with a voluminous wig and dressed in a long, tight tunic. Both are venerated by their children, represented on the seat.
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Statue Group of Nebnetjeru
Cat. 3052
The cornerstone of Egyptian society was the institution of the family. In the funerary chapel, the ancient Egyptians often used to place a statue representing the owner together with his wife, united in an eternal embrace, as in the case of the statue of Nebnetjeru and his wife Amenhotep. He is shown wearing a short wig, covered by a long skirt that reaches to the ankles; she is embellished with a voluminous wig and dressed in a long, tight tunic. Both are venerated by their children, represented on the seat.
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Statue depicting the Goddess Sekhmet
Cat. 262
“I am the goddess Sekhmet, the lioness. I am the daughter of the sun god Ra, wife of the god Ptah, mother of the god Nefertum. I am commemorated for my ferocity, the embodiment of the rays of the sun. My breathing creates the desert because my breath is fiery, feared even by the serpent Apopis and the god Seth. I was the instrument of Ra's revenge against the wickedness of men. Their blood made me drunk, and my thirst for it was appeased by a deception: I drank red beer instead of human blood. My eyes became heavy, the sun went out and, when I awoke again, long litanies of prayers and offerings kept me at bay in the centuries that followed.”
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Statue depicting the Goddess Sekhmet
Cat. 262
“I am the goddess Sekhmet, the lioness. I am the daughter of the sun god Ra, wife of the god Ptah, mother of the god Nefertum. I am commemorated for my ferocity, the embodiment of the rays of the sun. My breathing creates the desert because my breath is fiery, feared even by the serpent Apopis and the god Seth. I was the instrument of Ra's revenge against the wickedness of men. Their blood made me drunk, and my thirst for it was appeased by a deception: I drank red beer instead of human blood. My eyes became heavy, the sun went out and, when I awoke again, long litanies of prayers and offerings kept me at bay in the centuries that followed.”
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Statuettes depicting the Ba of Iuefentahat
Cat. 6963/1, Cat. 6963/3
The day of misfortune approaches me,
and stands on that side like a [demon?].
Such is he who goes out and betakes himself to him.
O my soul,
you are able to console misery in life,
and discourage me from death, before I come to it:
make the West sweet for me!
One of the elements that composed the soul of the deceased was the ba, imagined as a bird with a human head. Its wings enabled it to move freely in the tomb as well as in the afterlife.
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Statuettes depicting the Ba of Iuefentahat
Cat. 6963/1, Cat. 6963/3
The day of misfortune approaches me,
and stands on that side like a [demon?].
Such is he who goes out and betakes himself to him.
O my soul,
you are able to console misery in life,
and discourage me from death, before I come to it:
make the West sweet for me!
One of the elements that composed the soul of the deceased was the ba, imagined as a bird with a human head. Its wings enabled it to move freely in the tomb as well as in the afterlife.
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Tigela em Faiança Azul
Cat. 3370
A cor azul intensa desta bela tigela de cerâmica vitrificada evoca imediatamente um dos apelidos da deusa Hathor, a “Senhora da Cor Turquesa”. Hathor era a deusa-vaca do amor, da beleza e da fecundidade. Por isso, vasilhas deste tipo são muitas vezes encontradas em templos dedicados à deusa Hathor. Na decoração desta tigela, uma tilápia traz duas flores de lótus na boca: uma fechada em botão e outra com a corola aberta. As flores de lótus simbolizam a fertilidade, o renascimento e a regeneração. No antigo Egito, inspiravam a prática religiosa que provavelmente levava as jovens egípcias a oferecê-las no templo onde oravam por fecundidade e maior poder de maternidade.
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Tigela em Faiança Azul
Cat. 3370
A cor azul intensa desta bela tigela de cerâmica vitrificada evoca imediatamente um dos apelidos da deusa Hathor, a “Senhora da Cor Turquesa”. Hathor era a deusa-vaca do amor, da beleza e da fecundidade. Por isso, vasilhas deste tipo são muitas vezes encontradas em templos dedicados à deusa Hathor. Na decoração desta tigela, uma tilápia traz duas flores de lótus na boca: uma fechada em botão e outra com a corola aberta. As flores de lótus simbolizam a fertilidade, o renascimento e a regeneração. No antigo Egito, inspiravam a prática religiosa que provavelmente levava as jovens egípcias a oferecê-las no templo onde oravam por fecundidade e maior poder de maternidade.
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Tu, Faraó
[You, Pharaoh]
Instalação interativa com sistema de semiespelho, escultura e iluminação especial. Sente-se e observe-se no reflexo encaixando seu rosto no adereço do Faraó.
[Interactive installation with a one-way mirror, sculpture and special lighting. Sit down and look at the reflection, fitting your face within the pharaoh’s headdress.]
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Tumbas egípcias
Durante a longeva civilização do Nilo surgiram muitos tipos de tumbas, como as pirâmides, mastabas, hipogeus e túmulos-templos. As tumbas monumentais dos faraós eram muito diferentes daquelas das pessoas comuns, embora tivessem um mesmo objetivo: garantir a vida eterna aos mortos que elas protegiam.
Depois das grandes pirâmides do Antigo Império, a partir do Novo Império os faraós eram enterrados em hipogeus: câmaras e corredores cobertos com relevos policromados, escavados na rocha. As pessoas comuns também escolhiam hipogeus, tumbas menos monumentais, embora anexadas a capelas funerárias, onde os parentes recordavam e homenageavam seus mortos. Em Deir el-Medina – sítio arqueológico perto de Luxor – as capelas funerárias tinham a forma de pequenas pirâmides encimadas por um piramídio (pequena peça piramidal de pedra esculpida e pintada com elementos religiosos). A porta também era de pedra pintada e inscrita com hieróglifos que traziam o nome e os títulos do defunto. Dentro da capela, era essencial colocar a estela porta-falsa, elemento mágico que permitia à alma do falecido deixar a tumba e se movimentar livremente.
Finalmente, como a múmia precisava se alimentar por toda a eternidade, as oferendas funerárias compostas por comida eram esculpidas em uma estela funerária e uma mesa de oferendas. O restante do equipamento funerário era colocado dentro da câmara sepulcral.
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Um exército de shabtis
No final do I Período Intermediário (2118-1980 a.C.), os shabtis passaram a fazer parte dos equipamentos funerários dos antigos egípcios. Eram estatuetas mumiformes destinadas a substituir o defunto caso este fosse convocado para executar trabalhos agrícolas no Além.
A partir do III Período Intermediário (1076-722 a.C.), o número de shabtis registrados em sepultamentos individuais aumentou gradativamente até formar um verdadeiro exército a serviço do defunto. Durante esse período, em geral, as estatuetas funerárias eram colocadas em dois pequenos cofres. Alguns achados mostram que os shabtis eram dispostos em posição vertical, encostados uns nos outros, e que o número canônico era de 401 shabtis. Não se tratava de um número aleatório, mas representava 365 múmias shabti (uma para cada dia do ano egípcio) mais 36 chefes em trajes do cotidiano, tendo na mão os símbolos do poder (1 para cada 10 shabtis).
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Vida cotidiana
No imaginário popular, o antigo Egito sempre foi considerado uma terra mística e lendária. Ainda hoje, depois de ver as grandes coleções egípcias em todo o mundo, as pessoas têm a impressão de que os egípcios davam enorme atenção à morte. Essa percepção se deve ao tipo de objetos preservados: belos artefatos funerários que contam histórias de estranhos costumes e crenças, extremamente interessantes e fascinantes, mas em grande parte associados à morte e aos funerais.
No entanto, os egípcios não gastavam muito tempo pensando na morte. Pelo contrário, amavam a vida, tanto que esperavam por sua continuação após a morte. A vida, especialmente a vida cotidiana, é o personagem principal da primeira seção desta exposição.
A exuberante civilização egípcia dependia do rio Nilo e de suas enchentes sistemáticas. O dia era longo e o sol causticante, especialmente para os pobres camponeses que passavam seus dias nos campos. Os nobres proprietários das terras, entretanto, desfrutavam de seu tempo em frondosas áreas sombreadas sob as palmeiras, divertindo-se, caçando e pescando por puro prazer.
A paisagem egípcia, antiga e moderna, reflete o contraste entre o árido deserto vermelho, dominado pelo temível deus Seth, que matou seu irmão Osíris, e a estreita faixa de terra bem irrigada em ambos os lados do rio, com sua exuberante paisagem e vegetação frequentemente retratadas nas belas pinturas existentes nas paredes das tumbas egípcias.
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Wall fragment with agricultural scene
S. 1262
We work for the master!
The day is beautiful and we are in the cool,
the oxen pull and pull, the sky accords with our desires,
we work for the master! (song)
This was the only way that Egyptian peasants had to alleviate the long harsh days of work in the sun: singing old songs. The heat forced them to wear just a short skirt, called a shendit. It was hard to keep working steadily, but the overseer, their foreman, was relentless! “Work for the master and your reward will be great!”
On the walls of the tombs of the Old Kingdom, scenes of this type were frequent, because they guaranteed the eternal perpetuation of the funeral offerings, which consisted for the most part of food: these were indispensable to enable the deceased to live on in the afterlife.
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Wall fragment with agricultural scene
S. 1262
We work for the master!
The day is beautiful and we are in the cool,
the oxen pull and pull, the sky accords with our desires,
we work for the master! (song)
This was the only way that Egyptian peasants had to alleviate the long harsh days of work in the sun: singing old songs. The heat forced them to wear just a short skirt, called a shendit. It was hard to keep working steadily, but the overseer, their foreman, was relentless! “Work for the master and your reward will be great!”
On the walls of the tombs of the Old Kingdom, scenes of this type were frequent, because they guaranteed the eternal perpetuation of the funeral offerings, which consisted for the most part of food: these were indispensable to enable the deceased to live on in the afterlife.
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Egito Antigo: do cotidiano à eternidade


A exposição não tem a pretensão de abranger completamente o assunto, mas busca oferecer um vislumbre dessa cultura mítica (quarto milênio a.C. – século primeiro a.C ) e um resumo sobre algumas de suas peculiaridades, usos, costumes e hábitos específicos. O percurso expositivo é dividido em três partes: vida cotidiana, religião e costumes funerários.


A civilização egípcia era extremamente hierarquizada e administrada por burocratas que respondiam ao único dirigente legítimo do país: o faraó.


A religião egípcia sempre foi politeísta, caracterizada pela crença em um grande número de divindades superiores e inferiores. O culto oficial dos deuses ocorria nos templos. Os deuses egípcios se manifestavam de várias maneiras, e muitos deles também assumiam a forma animal. Tão logo ascendiam ao trono os faraós dedicavam grande parte de seus recursos à criação de templos e tumbas monumentais. A eternidade, a preservação do corpo do defunto e sua consequente sobrevivência após a morte são três aspectos do mesmo conceito. A prática de mumificação parece ter sido favorecida pela disseminação da crença de que, para desfrutar da vida eterna, um egípcio tinha de se submeter a um julgamento divino presidido pelo deus Osíris.


A possibilidade de continuar a viver era assegurada por um conjunto complexo de objetos rituais e mágicos. Desde as origens e até o fim da civilização egípcia antiga, o sarcófago sempre continha um universo de crenças religiosas. O sarcófago garante ao defunto a regeneração eterna de cada indivíduo.


Paolo Marini
Pieter Tjabbes




Ancient Egypt: From Daily Life to Eternity


The exhibition does not make any large claim to completeness, but rather seeks to give a glimpse of that legendary culture (4th millennium BC – 1st century BC) and an overview of some of its distinctive practices, usages, customs and habits. The exhibition is divided into three sections: daily life, religion and funerary customs.


Egyptian civilization was very hierarchical and administered by bureaucrats accountable to the only legitimate ruler of the country: the Pharaoh.


Egyptian religion was polytheistic, characterized by the belief in a large number of major and minor divinities. The official worship of the gods took place in temples. The gods could manifest themselves in a number of different ways, and many of them also took animal form. As soon as the Pharaohs ascended the throne, they would devote much of their resources to the creation of monumental temples and tombs. Eternity, the preservation of the deceased’s body and its consequent survival are three aspects of the same concept. The practice of mummification seems to have been favored by the spread of the belief that, to enjoy eternal life, an Egyptian had to submit to a divine judgment presided over by the god Osiris.


The possibility of continuing in the afterlife was ensured by a complex set of ritual and magical furnishings. From the origins to the end of Ancient Egyptian civilization, the coffin always enclosed a universe of religious beliefs. The coffin ensures that the deceased possess the eternal regeneration.


Paolo Marini
Pieter Tjabbes
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Egito Antigo: do cotidiano à eternidade


A exposição não tem a pretensão de abranger completamente o assunto, mas busca oferecer um vislumbre dessa cultura mítica (quarto milênio a.C. – século primeiro a.C ) e um resumo sobre algumas de suas peculiaridades, usos, costumes e hábitos específicos. O percurso expositivo é dividido em três partes: vida cotidiana, religião e costumes funerários.


A civilização egípcia era extremamente hierarquizada e administrada por burocratas que respondiam ao único dirigente legítimo do país: o faraó.


A religião egípcia sempre foi politeísta, caracterizada pela crença em um grande número de divindades superiores e inferiores. O culto oficial dos deuses ocorria nos templos. Os deuses egípcios se manifestavam de várias maneiras, e muitos deles também assumiam a forma animal. Tão logo ascendiam ao trono os faraós dedicavam grande parte de seus recursos à criação de templos e tumbas monumentais. A eternidade, a preservação do corpo do defunto e sua consequente sobrevivência após a morte são três aspectos do mesmo conceito. A prática de mumificação parece ter sido favorecida pela disseminação da crença de que, para desfrutar da vida eterna, um egípcio tinha de se submeter a um julgamento divino presidido pelo deus Osíris.


A possibilidade de continuar a viver era assegurada por um conjunto complexo de objetos rituais e mágicos. Desde as origens e até o fim da civilização egípcia antiga, o sarcófago sempre continha um universo de crenças religiosas. O sarcófago garante ao defunto a regeneração eterna de cada indivíduo.


Paolo Marini
Pieter Tjabbes




Ancient Egypt: From Daily Life to Eternity


The exhibition does not make any large claim to completeness, but rather seeks to give a glimpse of that legendary culture (4th millennium BC – 1st century BC) and an overview of some of its distinctive practices, usages, customs and habits. The exhibition is divided into three sections: daily life, religion and funerary customs.


Egyptian civilization was very hierarchical and administered by bureaucrats accountable to the only legitimate ruler of the country: the Pharaoh.


Egyptian religion was polytheistic, characterized by the belief in a large number of major and minor divinities. The official worship of the gods took place in temples. The gods could manifest themselves in a number of different ways, and many of them also took animal form. As soon as the Pharaohs ascended the throne, they would devote much of their resources to the creation of monumental temples and tombs. Eternity, the preservation of the deceased’s body and its consequent survival are three aspects of the same concept. The practice of mummification seems to have been favored by the spread of the belief that, to enjoy eternal life, an Egyptian had to submit to a divine judgment presided over by the god Osiris.


The possibility of continuing in the afterlife was ensured by a complex set of ritual and magical furnishings. From the origins to the end of Ancient Egyptian civilization, the coffin always enclosed a universe of religious beliefs. The coffin ensures that the deceased possess the eternal regeneration.


Paolo Marini
Pieter Tjabbes







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